Alfonso XII monument, Madrid (photo from trekearth.com)
Please note, the post is actually fairly short if one just reads the main body and not the footnotes.
As part of my post-viva PhD revisions I was required to do some psychological and scientific research on consciousness, that was to work in concert with my already theological and philosophical approach. I presented a bit of this information back on May 13, 2009 with the article 'Consciousness, universalism, and Dos Equis'.
This new post will provide more material on consciousness.
How is this relevant to theology, philosophy of religion and Biblical Studies and more particular in my case, theodicy and the problem of evil? Well, I must admit I wondered why I was digging through secular psychology and science journals for my PhD revisions, but actually the findings do not, in my opinion, work against the Biblical idea of a human immaterial soul/spirit.
Sir John Houghton (1995) defines consciousness as ‘a quality possessed by human beings’ and the extent that it may be possessed by higher animals is the subject of debate.[1] Although the human brain is sometimes compared to a computer,[2] the human brain seems different as it thinks, feels, and demonstrates the property of self-awareness and consciousness.[3] Rocco J. Gennaro (2006) of Indiana State University documents grammatically that the main term under review, consciousness is derived from the Latin con (with)[4] and scire (know).[5]
Michael Winkelman (2004) of the American Anthropological Association writes that common understanding of a model of consciousness includes attention-awareness, phenomenal experiences, self-referencing, learning and the use of information, interpreting meanings, having goals, and systems of social reference.[6] It is suggested that consciousness manifests itself through the physical properties of the brain.[7] John Perry (1998) within ‘Circumstantial Attitudes and Benevolent Cognition’ suggests desires, beliefs and other cognitive aspects of persons are associated with mental states.[8] These mental states[9] relate by implication to human consciousness. There are strands of thought that desires and related functions may be found within human consciousness.[10]
David M. Rosenthal (2007) in ‘Philosophy, and the Study of Consciousness’ states that a person or creature is conscious when it can be awake and respond to ‘sensory stimulation.’[11] Being conscious also relates to a creature that senses and perceives about a thing or has a thought about that thing being present.[12] It is also defined as the state of being aware in contrast to being unaware.[13] Wade Novin (2004) in his journal article on quantum physics and consciousness explains consciousness is a ‘unique problem for the sciences’.[14] Cognitive science has recently made advances in understanding the structures and process of sensory input leading to bodily functions, but still little is known about consciousness.[15] It is noted that presently it is difficult to explain the need for consciousness within physical organisms within a physical, natural world.[16] Consciousness is considered as part of natural phenomenon because it is reasoned to exist, but not because any scientific theory can predict or explain its emergence.[17]
Peter Carruthers (2001)(2007) documents that modern higher-order theories[18] concerning consciousness attempts to reason out the distinctive properties of consciousness in regard to higher-order representation of sorts as in the ‘subjective dimensions’ of feelings.[19] Within the International Journal of Philosophy, Isabel Gois (2001) suggests that in written work consciousness is often viewed as a mystery.[20] She seeks to make consciousness less mysterious through the use of scientific inquiry.[21] Some philosophers and many scientists are skeptical concerning human ability to explain how the brain works in regard to the shape of events, thoughts and feelings.[22] There is a common view that no matter how detailed and complete a scientific theory of consciousness may be it will not be able to explain why the human ‘conscious experiences alone have an apparent quality to their occurrences’ while unconscious processes do not.[23]
Gois thinks this is a mistaken perspective[24] and instead reasons that science should ‘either provide physical evidence for the truth of those introspective impressions, or bow to the conclusion that it can never know our minds as well as they know themselves’.[25] She suggests that most reason that the second option is the more likely one, although she disagrees and reasons science can one day empirically understand consciousness.[26] Sir John Houghton writes that we should not expect to find extra material as part of the brain called ‘consciousness or self-awareness’ which ‘pervades the brain without being a part of it,[27] and I accept this is as a sound statement.
There is no clear understanding despite the fact consciousness, desires and related are studied within philosophy, religion, psychology and psychiatry.[28] The term and concept of consciousness has not been developed with enough clarity from scientists and others with related expertise.[29] It can be reasoned that possibly consciousness is the starting point where the human being has self-awareness and an understanding that they are an individual apart from any other entity.[30] Consciousness is a difficult subject,[31] but psychologist and philosopher William James (1904) states that if the idea of consciousness in understanding human thought is eliminated there is not an explanation for brain function.[32] If human consciousness is rejected because it is not completely understood,[33] then other ideas need to be invented which probably are not as intellectually satisfying.
[1] Houghton (1995: 219).
[2] Houghton (1995: 92).
[3] Houghton (1995: 92).
[4] Gennaro (2006: 1).
[5] Gennaro (2006: 1).
[6] Winkelman (2004: 1).
[7] Winkelman (2004: 1).
[8] Perry (1998: 1).
[9] Perry (1998: 1).
[10] Biologist Alfred Gierer from Tubingen suggests that consciousness appears as ‘a system’s feature of our brain with neural processes strictly following the laws of physics’. Gierer (2003: 1). Gierer explains that there is not however, a general and exhaustive theory of human consciousness. Gierer (2003: 1). E. Ordunez, I. Badillo, and E Peon state the basic conjecture is that matter, energy and related information within the universe activates brain function and the nervous system and the human experiences of ‘memory, logic, sentiments, awareness, perception, cognition’, and other processes. Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 1).
[11] Rosenthal (2007: 1).
[12] Rosenthal (2007: 1). This would include an imagination of something possible.
[13] Rosenthal (2007: 1).
[14] Novin (2004: 1).
[15] Novin (2004: 1-2).
[16] Novin (2004: 2).
[17] Novin (2004: 2). Neil C. Manson writes that there is unlikely to be a simple, direct way to connect mental discourse to ultimate conclusions concerning the nature of consciousness. Manson (2002: 1).
[18] Carruthers (2001)(2007: 1). Higher-order thought will allow one to be conscious of his/her own state. Rosenthal (2007: 9-11). See also Ned Block of New York University. Block (2008: 1-2) and Gennaro (2006: 1-2).
[19] Carruthers (2001)(2007: 1).
[20] Gois (2001: 3). However, Gierer notes that most scientists reason mental states are clearly linked to the empirical physical states of the human brain. Gierer (2003: 6).
[21] Gois (2001: 3-4).
[22] Gois (2001: 4). Many philosophers and scientists are sceptical that human consciousness can be properly explained. Houghton admits it is difficult for many observers to accept that consciousness can be defined in a meaningful way or to describe it in terms of other things. Houghton (1995: 92-93).
[23] Gois (2001: 4).
[24] Gois (2001: 4).
[25] Gois (2001: 4). Gierer reasons one of the difficulties with the problem of understanding human consciousness and understanding humanity is the question of human free will. Gierer (2003: 13). Consciousness allows a person to have knowledge and understanding of self and environment and, therefore to have a perception of both good and evil. Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2).
[26] Gois (2001: 4). Marco Biagini, an Italian scientist with a PhD in Solid State Physics that operates the Center of Scientific Divulgation of Consciousness comments consciousness is ‘directly observable phenomena.’ Biagini (2009: 1-4). He takes a more optimistic approach to the idea of coming to scientific conclusions concerning consciousness. Houghton admits that consciousness will require new scientific theories and insights. Houghton (1995: 210).
[27] Houghton (1995: 70).
[28] Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2).
[29] Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2). Houghton (1995: 210).
[30] Descartes in Lormand (1648)(1996: Volume 3: 335). Hume (1739-1740)(1973: 185). Gierer (2003: 9).
[31] Gierer (2003: 9). Gois (2001: 4).
[32] James (1904: 477-491).
[33] James (1904: 477-491).
BIAGINI, MARCO (2009) ‘Mind and brain: A scientific discussion leading to the existence of the soul’, CSDC, Italy, Center of Scientific Divulgation about Consciousness.
BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
BLOCK, NED (2008) ‘Comparing the Major Theories of Consciousness’, in The Cognitive Neurosciences IV, V.M. Gazzaniga (ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
CARRUTHERS, PETER (2001)(2007) ‘Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness’, in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Palo Alto, California, Stanford University Press.
DESCARTES, RENE (1648)(1996) ‘Conversation with Burman’, in Eric Lormand: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan.
DARROW, CLARENCE (1928)(1973) ‘The Myth of the Soul’, in The Forum, October, in Paul Edwards and Arthur Pap (eds.), A Modern Introduction To Philosophy, New York, The Free Press.
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