LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.
A unit class is a class which only has one member in it. (119). In symbolic logic, class, as in unit class, is not 'individuals in a group.' (119). Class offers no process of collecting individuals. (119). A propositional form might only have a single application. (119). Its variable might only have a single value for a proposition. (119).
A committee of one is a unit class. (120). This is true, even as the committee only has one member. Another author provided example is that of 'corporate sole.' (120). A corporation sole is a legal entity consisting of a single incorporated office. A sole.
Author's propositional example:
(∃x) : x ε A (120).
There exists x: x is/a A.
ε is epsilon from the Greek alphabet meaning is, a. This ε symbol, according to Langer is specifically meant as a symbol for is, a, in contrast with any symbol for is.
The city-states of Greece are used as an example. (121).
x ε city-state of Greece. (121).
The city-states of Greece refers to all members of the class of city-states of Greece. (121). Therefore, it can be propositionally presented as city-state of Greece.
My examples:
A=Athens
S=Sparta
G=City-state of Greece.
A ε G
Athens is a city-state of Greece.
S ε G
Sparta is a city-state of Greece.
Ancient Greece in context.
A ∃ G
Athens exists as a city-state of Greece.
A ∃ G ⊃ S ∃ G
Athens exists as a city-state of Greece the same as Sparta exists as a city-state of Greece.
⊃=Same as.
Theologically, corporate sole is not to be confused with any concept of corporate soul. A human being has one soul (Genesis 2: 7). Those in Jesus Christ, through his death and resurrection and their justification and sanctification, being indwelt with the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit would divinely influence and sanctify human beings; the infinite Holy Spirit, influencing and sanctifying the finite human spirit. Demonic possession or harassment would consist of the finite demonic spirit influencing the finite human spirit.
There is not a ontological fusion of soul or spirit as in a finite human soul or spirit becoming divine.
'Hedging in arguments means sheltering behind ambiguous meanings so that the sense can be changed later.' (120).
To paraphrase the author's example:
We stated we did not want a full-fledged war in the Middle East; that is still the position, we entered into limited war. (120).
This type of argumentation allows for a 'definitional retreat.' (120).
'Hedging is fallacious because it puts two or more different statements under the guise of one'. (120).
It is a semantic game in parsing the difference between a 'limited war' and a 'full-fledged' war. Is any war 'full-fledged' without nuclear weapons?
Hedging hopes that the reviewer of argumentation, will not know better (120); the information presented becomes useless because it is not presented accurately. (120).
To avoid hedging one could state:
'We are entering into war; we are committed.'
Or:
'We are not entering into war, because the risks are too great.'
Hedging again...
We stated we did not want to colonize Mars, that is still the position, but we have several Mars space missions planned.
Interestingly, Pirie indicates that Nostradamus used hedging to make obscure predictions. (121). The author reasons that observers look for what they want to see as far as what has already occurred and apply what Nostradamus predicted. This does not assist in making accurate predictions. (121).
Hedging uses dishonesty and ambiguity. (121).
Hedging can be used in biblical studies to read into Scripture meanings that can be possibly changed at a later date. There are cultic movements that use prophecy to predict the Apocalypse, more than once.
'The central message of the letter is that redemption must be applied to everyday situations.' (50). This calls for a new Holy Spirit led life for the Christian believer. (50). The righteousness of Jesus Christ is imputed to believers through the atonement and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and Christians are to live as such. Notably in First Corinthians this means that sexual immorality should be avoided. (50-51).
First Corinthians 6: 9-11 is notable is this regard.
New American Standard Version
9 Or do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived; neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor [f]effeminate, nor homosexuals, 10 nor thieves, nor the covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor swindlers, will inherit the kingdom of God. 11 Such were some of you; but you were washed, but you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God.
This is a key section of Scripture that both Christian conservatives and Christian liberals should heed.
Neither fornication from heterosexuals, nor homosexuality as practices are acceptable within the Kingdom of God, in this realm or the next. This is not a fundamentalistic perspective, but a Biblical, New Testament one.
In humanity, universally, as almost every human being struggles with some form (s) of sexual sin, the need for forgiveness and restoration with God in the gospel, is apparent.
Fee
Gordon Fee provides a 'proposed reconstruction'. He writes that the 'historical situation in the Corinth was one of conflict between the church and its founder.' (6). However, it is also true that the church in Corinth was 'experiencing internal strife.' (6). There was a division between the Apostle Paul and some in Corinth in regard to what was considered 'spiritual.' (6). One of the notable problems being sexual immorality. (6). It can be reasoned that the spirituality of sexuality was under discussion.
Marsh
Marsh opines there were two factors that led to the Apostle Paul writing First Corinthians. (1) Reports of church dissension. These dissensions could lead to the destruction of the church at Corinth. (1348). (2) The Apostle answered a variety of key questions, including on the resurrection. (1348). First Corinthians 15 being essential text in regard to the future resurrection of those in Jesus Christ.
Courson
The church at Corinth was 'divided, defiled and defamed'. (1011). Therefore the Apostle Paul instructs the Corinthian church in regard to effective ministry, true unity, Christian charity, spiritual maturity, liberty, conduct, spiritual gifts, and the resurrection of the dead. (1011). This review is consistent with the others I have presented, dealing with divisions, immorality and theological confusion.
Elwell and Yarbrough
'The Corinthian church holds the dubious distinction of being the most confused congregation, or group of congregations, that Paul addressed.' (270). The Corinthian letters were written to provide spiritual guidance in a 'religiously turbulent era.' (270). Paul deals with the issue of church division (273), and that teachings of wisdom, philosophy and the law, were preferred in the Corinthian church to the gospel and God in Christ. (273).
The Corinthians departed from Paul's teaching, because 'in their own social setting' certain ideas made more sense to them. (274). This is an approach often seen within today's modern, western, Christian Church. In regard to ethics, dating, marriage and lifestyle, the Bible is often negated in favour of secular cultural views and/or less commonly, Pharisaical, Christian cultural views.
Perhaps God, willingly allows these views, leading to acts and actions, to override a more culturally risky, closer obedience to the Holy Spirit, because of the hardness of human hearts? This similar to when Jesus Christ spoke of divorce in Matthew 19 and Mark 10.
I think so.
Gundry
'Theme: the problems in the church in Corinth and their solutions.' (269). This included the problem of divisions, and weak leadership versus the enlightened understanding of the New Testament gospel. (269). Problems in regards to lawsuits and immorality were also addressed by the Apostle Paul. (269).
COURSON, JON (2005) Application Commentary, Thomas Nelson, Nashville.
ELWELL, WALTER AND YARBROUGH, ROBERT W., Third Edition (2013) Encountering The New Testament, Grand Rapids, Baker Academic.
DUNNETT, WALTER M. (2001) Exploring The New Testament, Wheaton, Crossway Books.
FEE, GORDON D. (1987) The First Epistle To The Corinthians, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
GUNDRY, ROBERT (1981) A Survey of the New Testament, Grand Rapids, Zondervan.
MARSH, PAUL, W. (1986) ‘1 Corinthians’, in F.F. Bruce, (ed.), The International Bible Commentary, Grand Rapids, Marshall Pickering/Zondervan.
Miss Gina has requested my assistance with a First Corinthians course she has originated and is teaching within the Vancouver Christian singles community.
Gordon Fee explains that Paul left Corinth sometime in AD 51-52, and that the writing of First Corinthians took place approximately three years later. (4). This makes the date approximately 54-55 AD.
Elwell and Yarbrough
First Corinthians 55 AD (273).
(Second Corinthians 56 AD) (276).
--- Authorship and Location
Scholarly consensus from sources is that First Corinthians is of Pauline authorship.
'The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Ancient Greek: Α΄ Επιστολή προς Κορινθίους), usually referred to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1 Corinthians, is one of the Pauline epistles of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle says that Paul the Apostle and "Sosthenes our brother" wrote it to "the church of God which is at Corinth" 1Cor.1:1–2 although the scholarly consensus holds that Sosthenes was the amanuensis who write down the text of the letter at Paul's direction.[1]'
I have noted on my websites that a scribe at times, may have written parts the New Testament, via the words of an Apostle or disciple. This may impact some that hold to a fundamentalistic type of dictation theory, allowing for no third party, but within a biblical theory of inspiration, certainly the Holy Spirit can inspire, for example, the Apostle Paul that then accurately dictates to a scribe. Further, we do not possess original biblical autographs and we are dependent on post apostolic scribal accuracy.
Scholarly consensus is that the First Corinthians was written in Ephesus. Dunnett (49).
Cited
'Paul's authorship of 1 Corinthians (see 1 Cor 1;1) is virtually undisputed in ancient and modern times. (273). Elwell and Yarbrough provide the theory that there is an initial letter to the Corinthians, now lost. 1 Cor 5:9.' (272). This is a well-known concept within scholarship.
New American Standard Bible (NASB)
9 I wrote you in my letter not to associate with immoral people;
Elwell and Yarbrough note, that First and Second Corinthians...'are only two of a larger collection of writings that passed between the apostle and the church.' (272).
Before one objects to the possibility of this view in haste; is it to be understood that everything the Apostle Paul or an Apostle wrote within the New Testament era was Holy Spirit inspired Scripture?
Did not the Apostle Paul correct as in error the Apostle Peter in Galatians 2?
An Apostle in the New Testament was not necessarily always inspired in writing and action by the Holy Spirit, but was Holy Spirit inspired in the transmission of Scripture. (2 Timothy 3).
Not to venture into the ridiculous, but hypothetically, if the Apostle Paul wrote a note for a servant and disciple to fetch two chickens, and this note also contained the words of Jesus Christ as theological encouragement in service, it does not mean the note is inspired Scripture. It is rather Holy Spirit guided non-Scripture.
There appears to be consensus that Second Corinthians was written in Macedonia. Both Corinthians widely reasoned to be written during Paul's third missionary journey.
ELWELL, WALTER AND YARBROUGH, ROBERT W., Third Edition (2013) Encountering The New Testament, Grand Rapids, Baker Academic.
DUNNETT, WALTER M. (2001) Exploring The New Testament, Wheaton, Crossway Books.
FEE, GORDON D. (1987) The First Epistle To The Corinthians, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
GUNDRY, ROBERT (1981) A Survey of the New Testament, Grand Rapids, Zondervan.
MARSH, PAUL, W. (1986) ‘1 Corinthians’, in F.F. Bruce, (ed.), The International Bible Commentary, Grand Rapids, Marshall Pickering/Zondervan.
'The Shack is a novel by Canadian author William P. Young, a former office manager and hotel night clerk, with no theological experience; published in 2007.[1]'
Cited
'The title of the book is a metaphor for "the house you build out of your own pain", as Young explained in a telephone interview.[5]'
Cited
'The main character is Mackenzie Allen Phillips...'
Cited
'Two of his children are playing in a canoe when it flips and almost drowns Mack's son. Mack is able to save his son by rushing to the water and freeing him from the canoe's webbing, but unintentionally leaves his youngest daughter Missy alone at their campsite. After Mack returns, he sees that Missy is missing. The police are called, and the family discovers that Missy has been abducted and murdered by a serial killer known as the "Little Ladykiller". The police find an abandoned shack in the woods where Missy was taken. Her bloodied clothing is found, but her body is not located. Mack's life sinks into what he calls "The Great Sadness".'
Cited
'Mack's family leaves to visit relatives and he goes alone to the shack, unsure of what he will see there. He arrives and initially finds nothing, but as he is leaving, the shack and its surroundings are supernaturally transformed into a lush and inviting scene. He enters the shack and encounters manifestations of the three persons of the Trinity. God the Father takes the form of an African American woman who calls herself Elousia and Papa (Papa is also the name of the mother goddess in Polynesian mythology); Jesus Christ is a Middle-Eastern carpenter; and the Holy Spirit physically manifests as an Asian woman named Sarayu.'
'The bulk of the book narrates Mack's conversations with Papa, Jesus, and Sarayu as he comes to terms with Missy's death and his relationship with the three of them. Mack also has various experiences with each of them. Mack walks across a lake with Jesus, sees an image of his father in Heaven with Sarayu, and has a conversation with Sophia, the personification of God's wisdom. At the end of his visit, Mack goes on a hike with Papa, now appearing as an older white male, who shows him where Missy's body was left in a cave.'
Cited
'Mars Hill Church pastor Mark Driscoll criticized The Shack, saying "it misrepresents God"[12] and called William P. Young "a heretic".[13]
Evangelical author Chuck Colson wrote a review called "Stay Out of The Shack," in which he criticizes the attribution of "silly lines" to characters representing the three Persons of the Trinity, and the author's "low view of scripture".[14] R. Albert Mohler, Jr. called The Shack "deeply troubling" on his radio show, saying that it "includes undiluted heresy".[15] Apologists author Norman Geisler and William C. Roach published a critique in 2012 detailing their 14 points of theological disagreement with the book (including "unorthodox", "false", "classic heresy", "non-rational", "psychologically helpful ... doctrinally harmful", and "very dangerous").[16]'
'Theologian Randal Rauser has written a generally sympathetic guide to The Shack in his companion volume Finding God in the Shack (Paternoster, 2009). In the book Rauser responds to many of the objections raised by critics like Colson and Mohler.'
'The tragedy shatters Mack's faith and life until he receives a mysterious telegram signed by "Papa" (which is Nan's name for God) inviting him to come to the cabin. Reluctantly accepting, Mack travels there and is overcome with rage and suicidal thoughts, until he meets a mysterious trio of strangers who seek to help him understand, heal and forgive. In the book, Missy's kidnapper is caught. In the movie, he is not. There also is a opening scene showing the father's horrid abuse of the family when Mack is a boy, thus giving us an idea of how the story started.'
---
I have discussed online fictional themes and the problem of evil in other entries. However, it is not an academic focus and in the case of The Shack, the unorthodox Trinity, will confuse many persons. This is more troubling than for example, the problem of evil discussion from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice where there is no attempt at Christian theology.
DC/Time Warner
BOICE, JAMES, MONTGOMERY (1981) Foundations of the Christian Faith, Downers Grove, IVP Press.
ERICKSON, MILLARD (1994) Christian Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
FEINBERG, JOHN S. (1994) The Many Faces of Evil, Grand Rapids, Zondervan Publishing House.
I have new academic advisement work for an experienced, aspiring PhD science student, with essay writing and editing in English. Therefore, I add the following text for review. This was an English textbook for my undergraduate work. Yet another review for this website:
HAIRSTON, MAXINE and RUSZKIEWICZ, JOHN (1991) The Scott, Foresman Handbook For Writers, 2nd Edition, HarperCollins Publishers, New York.
In regard to a secret formula for writing English, effectively, the text opines that 'no such formula exists' (5). I agree, and for example, academic thesis writing differs from academic website writing. The former having far more citations, typically.
However, a process menu (5) is suggested:
Preparing
The desired topic is considered as well as generating ideas. (5).
Example: The problem of evil.
Planning
Organizations of materials, outline, summaries, charts. (5).
Based on both my Canadian and British academic training, in regard to the problem of evil, I could theoretically provide the following within an outline.
Definitions of the problem of evil.
My methodologies and assumptions.
My reasons for writing on the problem of evil.
Atheistic and agnostic views.
Evangelical views.
Reformed views.
Universalistic views.
Eastern religious views.
Survey questions and results.
Incubating
A writer should let ideas 'simmer' (6) with time away from the writing project.
I have to agree that this is essential. I had many thesis assisting ideas while lying in bed and apparently even while asleep, awakening with an idea.
I found that undergraduate and seminary course work often took more hours to complete than did my later theses writing. This was largely because of so many subjects to complete with course work; but thesis only research work was more complicated and required more difficult and complex thoughts. Theses writing requires a level of expertise, course work writing, typically, does not.
Sleep on it, for better writing.
Drafting
The author composes a first draft. (6).
On this point, I likely differ from many writers. One tutor at Trinity Western University suggested that my first Chapter draft be completely covered by outline, as in point by point. I found that the amount of citations, especially with British MPhil and PhD work became far too great for that approach. Instead, I would prepare a rough draft outline and fill in the blanks with ideas and many, many, required citations as a Chapter was completed.
Revising
Review and consider rewriting. (6).
This is inevitable. At times an idea may seem fascinating to pursue, but in the end, according to tutors and my own common sense (!), it may be potentially too controversial to pursue in light of future review at the academic viva (verbal examination). More importantly, with all the citations required, I found that some less than central issues were simply not worth investing in, and were therefore abandoned in the editing and revising process.
In my work on the problem of evil and theodicy, I only briefly discussed eastern concepts within my MPhil thesis degree, and this was in regard to a book review. Eastern religious approaches to the problem of evil, in addition to the work I had to accomplish already, was far too large of a topic to briefly cover, and if my work was judged as insufficient, I could face sanctioning from reviewers, especially with the PhD viva.
Editing and Proofreading
This includes editing and proofreading (6) for review by the degree awarding institution.
As I was a distance learning student, I asked two local ministers with Doctorates to unofficially review my Chapters before I emailed them off to Wales.
The authors state that this is a general outline only. (6). That no pattern works for all writers. (6). I agree with the authors that a general plan (6) needs to be developed. A general system of writing that is academically acceptable for that writing context. PhD thesis writing is a different context than Blogger or website entry writing.
Lunapic and Pixlr: Photo I took last summer, now painting
So far, in my opinion, these two paintings are gems. The late Bob Ross would likely call them 'fantastic.'
But every other photo of mine I have tried to translate to a painting this week looked horrid.
Especially any profile photos (i.e. Elephant Man). On the bright side, I now have artistic profile picture options, if I wish to repel unwanted interest...
Ms. Tatyana Voronkova requested an entry on prayer. Request granted. Thank you.
A New Testament example of the Lord's Prayer.
Matthew 6:9-13
New American Standard Bible (NASB)
9 “Pray, then, in this way:
‘Our Father who is in heaven,
Hallowed be Your name.
10 ‘Your kingdom come.
Your will be done,
On earth as it is in heaven.
11 ‘Give us this day [a]our daily bread.
12 ‘And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors.
13 ‘And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from [b]evil. [c][For Yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen.’]
Footnotes:
Matthew 6:11 Or our bread for tomorrow
Matthew 6:13 Or the evil one
Matthew 6:13 This clause not found in early mss
BOICE, JAMES, MONTGOMERY (1981) Foundations of the Christian Faith, Downers Grove, IVP Press.
CALVIN, JOHN (1539)(1998) The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Translated by Henry Beveridge, Grand Rapids, The Christian Classic Ethereal Library, Wheaton College.
CALVIN, JOHN (1543)(1996)The Bondage and Liberation of the Will, Translated by G.I. Davies, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
ERICKSON, MILLARD (1994) Christian Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
FEINBERG, JOHN S. (1994) The Many Faces of Evil, Grand Rapids, Zondervan Publishing House.
SMED, JOHN with HWANG, JUSTINE (2016) Engage: The Conversation with God, with believers, with seekers, Vancouver, Prayer Current.
Half-concealed qualification
'The words themselves express a limited claim, but the stress and construction is such that the qualifications are glossed over.' (117).
'There is a fallacy inherent in making a restricted claim and then engaging in it as if were a general claim. (118).
'The fact that the limitation is expressed does not remove the fallacy. It is the fact that the qualification is half-concealed which causes it to be unnoticed, and which excludes relevant information.' (118).
Based on Pirie's definition of this fallacy, limited claims made in premises should only lead to a limited conclusion.
the words express a limited claim, but the stress and construction is such that the qualifications are glossed over.
ex: "Practically every single case..."'
To avoid fallacy, limited claims, assertions and premises must clearly be described and lead to a limited conclusion.
Half a case (118) is not a case.
The author writes that 'Science and philosophy do not admit unexplained exceptions.' (118).
Explained exceptions are reasonable when presented as limited premises leading to a limited conclusion.
From (119)
Palm trees do not grow in England, so these must be a different type of tree.
Pirie points out there are exceptions.
It would be reasonable to state that typically palm trees do not grow in England, but there are exceptions.
From (119)
Just about every Cambridge man from the foreign office in the 1940s was a spy. Fire them all.
In reality it was only a few of these Cambridge men that were spies.
This should be presented as a limited statement, not a general one.
The fact that half a case is not a case means that a limited premise needs to be identified as such and not presented as a general premise.
PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.
Lunapic in the style of Vincent van Gogh, editing a photo I took today.
Early this morning, I viewed a classic American bible film from the 1950's on Turner Classic Movies. I had viewed it years ago and the second viewing was equally, decently, entertaining.
The lead actor of the film on Wikipedia is documented as being an atheist, in fact there is a quote from the actor implying such, or perhaps he was an agnostic.
Adherents.com claims this actor was a Presbyterian, but without any quote by the actor claiming a Christian faith and philosophy. Either way the actor, whether he was ever regenerated or not, acted as a first-century Christian in this film.
I will avoid naming the actor because I am not interested in debating this late actor's worldview, rather I am attempting to make a theological point. But for the sake of argument, let us state the quote correctly documents the actor as an atheist, or at least an agnostic.
It points to a simple, yet very important theological truth.
Reasonably as deduction:
A person can act in a fictional context.
A person can act in a non-fictional context.
A non-Christian can act as a Christian in a fictional context.
A non-Christian can act as a Christian in a non-fictional context.
The New Testament Scripture documents the existence of false Christians.
Therefore, the Christian Church contains some false Christians.
---
This would be true regardless of how intentional the falsehood and/or act.
To me in the context of this present earthly realm, it is obvious that not all persons would be true Christians, but the New Testament revelation documents the reality of false Christians. As if it needs to be taught. Notably in I John 2: 19.
1 John 2:19 New American Standard Bible (NASB)
19 They went out from us, but they were not really of us; for if they had been of us, they would have remained with us; but they went out, so that [a]it would be shown that they all are not of us.
1 John 2:19 English Standard Version (ESV)
19 They went out from us, but they were not of us; for if they had been of us, they would have continued with us. But they went out, that it might become plain that they all are not of us.
THE ENGLISH STANDARD VERSION (2007) Wheaton, Illinois, Crossway Books.
THE NEW AMERICAN STANDARD BIBLE (1984) Iowa Falls, Iowa, World Bible Publishers.
PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.
Cited
'Gamblers, and others, are led into this fallacy by confusing the odds against a whole sequence with the odds against any event in that sequence.' (113).
The odds against a coin landing heads five times in a row are therefore: 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 or 1/32 (113).
Very importantly...
Cited
'If the first four tosses, despite the odds, come down to heads, the chance of the fifth toss being heads is not 1 in 32, but 1 in 2.' (113). The odds for each individual toss remain the same! The previous tosses do not somehow effect the next. (113).
Pirie correctly reasons that philosophically, the odds remain the same. Luck will not improve or get worse. (114). Luck will not 'even out'. (114). The coin toss is random and heads or tails occurs by chance.
The gambler's fallacy is when an individual erroneously believes that the onset of a certain random event is less likely to happen following an event or a series of events. This line of thinking is incorrect because past events do not change the probability that certain events will occur in the future.'
Example
'The Vancouver Canucks are likely to win the Stanley Cup in the next few years, because they have not won it since entering the League in 1970.'
Professional oddsmakers can create reasonable odds of a particular team winning the Stanley in a given year.
It has nothing to do with any concept that the odds will even out, or with fairness.
Pirie explains that in this context, the universe is not fair. (115).
Rather, from a Christian theological perspective, God has established laws of the universe and within that is mathematical chance which can be logically explained in equation. From a theological perspective, this is no way negates the concept of an infinite, eternal, sovereign, providential God that created and maintains natural laws and can interfere supernaturally within divine will as first and primary cause.
This is my first, In Three Minutes audio series. These are short, approximately three minute academic, audio presentations.
A non-exhaustive useful list of texts:
AUDI, RICHARD (ed.), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
BAUER, W. (1979) A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Translated by Eric H. Wahlstrom, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
CALVIN, JOHN (1539)(1998) The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Translated by Henry Beveridge, Grand Rapids, The Christian Classic Ethereal Library, Wheaton College.
CALVIN, JOHN (1543)(1996) The Bondage and Liberation of the Will, Translated by G.I. Davies, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
ELWELL, WALTER (ed.), (1996) Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Books.
ELWELL, WALTER AND YARBROUGH, ROBERT W., Third Edition (2013) Encountering The New Testament, Grand Rapids, Baker Academic.
ERICKSON, MILLARD (1994) Christian Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
FEINBERG, JOHN S. (1994) The Many Faces of Evil, Grand Rapids, Zondervan Publishing House.
THE ENGLISH STANDARD VERSION (2007) Wheaton, Illinois, Crossway Books.
THE NEW AMERICAN STANDARD BIBLE (1984) Iowa Falls, Iowa, World Bible Publishers.
STRONG, J. (1890)(1986) Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Pickering, Ontario, Welch Publishing Company.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT (1993) Stuttgart, United Bible Societies.
LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.
A class is a class of so and so's, as in each member of the class has a certain character. (115). Langer uses the following example, bear in mind this was written in the 1950s and 1960s: A man belongs in the class of politicians, only if he is a politician. Being a politician equals being in the class of politician. (115).
Classes have sub-classes (117).
Class: Sheep
Sub-class: White sheep
Sub-class: Black sheep (117).
ε is epsilon from the Greek alphabet meaning is, a. This ε symbol, according to Langer is specifically meant as a symbol for is, a, in contrast with any symbol for is. Admittedly, my research has shown that ε is at times, interpreted in a variety of ways within mathematics, science and philosophy. But, of course this is a review of philosopher, Langer's text.
A=White sheep
B=All sorts of sheep
A is a sub-class of B.
White sheep are a sub-class of all sorts of sheep.
Every white sheep is a sheep. A sub-class of sheep.
(x)=Class
(x) : (x ε A) ⊃ (x ε B) (118).
C=Christians
P=All sorts of people
⊃=Same as
˜ =Not or false
All Christians are people. A sub-class of people.
(x) : (x ε C) ⊃ (x ε P)
There would be several sub-classes of Christians where not everyone would be a member, such as some Christians are Protestants and some are not.
