Analogy & Forms

Drachenburg Castle near Bonn-Wikia

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

Preface

I have been involved in three free courses the last two weeks. Two courses offered through a secular college affiliated with the Provincial and Federal governments related to career directly and one course through a local megachurch, related to career indirectly; the church course still in progress. There are of course ministry and spiritual considerations with the church course.

I will comment that in the secular context, although the instruction was good, a minority of the participants caused me to be reminded me of the secondary school environment and the dangers of substance abuse in effecting the mind in making career-related decisions. I state this far more in an analytical context as opposed to judgemental context (judging the person). I am saved by grace through faith alone, for good works and not by good works. (Ephesians 1-2).

I continue to work through the weighty Symbolic Logic material...

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LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

Chapter 1: The Study of forms (Continued from previous article)

Logical Form

'Form' as a term is defined beyond simply meaning shape. (23). This would be reasoned out from my previous related article, if not from Langer's section alone, then the philosophical additions I included.

The Langer text is specifically concerned with 'logical form' as opposed to form as in shape or physical shape. (24). This makes sense in the context of symbolic logic in the disciplines of mathematics and philosophy.

Structure

The logical form of something is the way it is constructed. (24). Its structure. It is the way it is put together. (24). If something has a definite form, it it constructed and structured in a definite way. (24).

Form and content

Material in a form may not be physical at all (26). Logicians attempt to avoid this connotation by calling that 'medium wherein a form is expressed, its content'. (27).

The author explains that we have so far (In the text) considered how the same content can appear in different forms. (27). But as well the same form may be exemplified by different contents. (27).

Different things may take the same form. An example is given of a human face carved out of a stone mountain, so therefore these different things would have a sameness of form. It (the carving) is arranged, (27) but still there is an aspect of sameness of form.

Analogy

'Analogy is nothing but the recognition of a common form in different things.' (29).

'A "logical picture" differs from an ordinary picture in that it need not look the least bit like its object. (29).

Its relation to the object is not of a copy, but an analogy. (29).

That is excellent, philosophy, so there is of course so such thing as a perfect analogy!

'It is only by analogy that one thing can represent another which does not resemble it.' (30). By analogy a map can mean a certain place. (30).

Forms

Cologne Cathedral: Carforhiredotcodotuk

BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

Preface

And online forms are often not enjoyable to fill out and many times not all that helpful, either.

As I mentioned last article, I plan to review this text and to continue to review the Pirie philosophical text.

Reviewing two philosophy texts is a research, writing, learning phase. I have wanted to learn symbolic logic more thoroughly since dabbling with it during my United Kingdom theses education days, and the Pirie text on fallacies is a book I bought fairly recently at a book store. Both texts will take time to go through properly.

I will still post theology, Bible and philosophy of religion articles when they come to mind and may post a documented type article on Satire And Theology, but I tend to keep the two site approaches different to avoid copying myself.

In Chapter 1: The Study of forms

The Importance of forms

'All knowledge, all sciences and arts have their beginning in the recognition that ordinary, familiar things may take on different forms.' (21).  Different forms of the same thing may be so widely diverse in appearance, it may be difficult to think of them as essentially the same substance. (21). Science treats these as the variants of the same stuff. (21).

Langer opines there are two kinds of knowledge:

Knowledge of things. (22). Direct intimacy which our senses give us. Empirical knowledge (my add).

An example is given that a baby can know its mother that feeds him/her, but know nothing about its, his/her, mother. (22).

Knowledge about them. (22). This requires more than 'direct sensuous' (22) knowledge.

The author states that 'transformations' or 'transformation' (22-23) explains changes in form. (22-23).

The growth of science demonstrates the importance of forms, according to the author. (23).

There are variations in forms that have been discovered through scientific discovery, and this is noted as very important by Langer.
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Form Theory

Blackburn writes that philosophically form theory can be traced back to Plato and his doctrines (143), as well as Pythagorean theory (Pythagoras) with the 'conception of form as the key to physical nature'. (143). It (form theory) is stated to also be associated with a sceptical doctrine of Cratylus, according to Aristotle. (143). Aristotle one of the teachers of Plato. (143).

'Plato attempts to present a way in which the forms of things are intelligible but abstract shared features. Ordinary things gain their natures by either 'imitating' forms (which then become thought of as transcendent and somehow independent of the sensible world) or 'participating' in them (in which case they are immanent, present in things, and perhaps less mysterious).' (163).

Form theory can be very theoretical on the philosophical front, in particular without the guidance of divine revelation.

This from my Biblical Christian theological and philosophical worldview and bias.

A valid form for an argument, as example, is a form that has practical use in mathematics, theology and philosophy.

I could opine theologically and in the context of philosophy of religion that theorizing on the forms and ontological nature of God's created angelic beings that are non-corporeal and yet finite, beyond what Scripture has already documented, would be very speculative. Not very practical. My view being the Scriptural revelation had ended with the closing of the New Testament and New Testament era.

Therefore, the forms and ontological nature of angelic beings is likely not going to be further discovered by the use of reason and speculation alone in this present realm.

Symbolic Logic

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Funny from last Sunday sermon 

The Pastor stated we should be careful making judgements based on feelings.

He explained that a Pastor friend from California called him Saturday and informed him that he had a dream that he felt might be from God.

The American Pastor felt that his friend in Canada, the Pastor preaching on Sunday, should run for 'President of Canada'.

Most recently purchased or given texts I will review on this blog, or will consider reviewing on this blog. This post will feature the first article reviewing ' An Introduction to Symbolic Logic'. The Kant text was purchased as it was an extremely important PhD source and I had used photocopies during my PhD thesis and therefore it is already reviewed within various articles. The Pirie philosophy text is under review on this blog, The 'Introduction' text should always be useful for Biblical Studies. The 'Origins' book is a useful 'old earth' scientific reference from a Christian perspective. The 'soccer' text was given to me by a friend and former co-worker and will not be reviewed (I do not think so anyway but with me you never know as I look at everything philosophically. I could review a Sesame Street book). The text on covenants is co-written by a former advisor from Trinity Western University and I will use it as reference. The Genesis material was sent to me anonymously by someone, I reason through Facebook, involved in Seventh Day Adventist theology and may be reviewed. It is likely taking a 'young earth' position from Genesis and a plain literal approach to the Biblical historical creation account, and not allowing for significant figurative literal interpretation.

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

I, by no means have an extensive mathematical or scientific academic background.

My education prior to college and University education is not a good indicator because I did not put much effort into my work with any subject, but I have secondary school trades math.

Years later as part of my United Kingdom PhD questionnaire and survey requirements, I had to work through the text 'Social Research Methods' by Alan Bryman. This book contains statistical related terms and theory that my academic adviser stated was at a Master's level. I was required to have an expert understanding of the text for my PhD Viva, although the actual statistics within my MPhil and PhD questionnaires and surveys required only proficient mathematical ability. The statistical work was verified as done correctly when checked by advisers.

I also had some experience with symbolic logic having to read and understand many philosophical texts in book and journal form for my British theses.

Plantinga's work on the problem of evil is an example that I reviewed in both my MPhil and PhD works and on this blog.

Therefore, I should learn much about symbolic logic reviewing this text and going forward.

Hopefully, assisting someone else to learn as well...

I will continue to review the Pirie philosophical text as well, but this adds more variance to blog presentations.

Preface

The author notes that mathematics has its practical uses but 'mathematics has such obvious practical uses that to learn its tricks without understanding their significance is not entirely silly; but may the same be said of symbolic logic?' (7).

'Is the manipulation of its symbols of such practical importance that students should learn to perform logical operations even without knowing or questioning their conceptual foundations?' (7).

The author reasons that even with practical uses, the key value of symbolic logic is conceptual. (7).

Here there is an academic and epistemological connection between mathematics and philosophy, as both can use symbolic logic practically and conceptually.

Langer reasons that 'method can be overemphasized, and tends to be so in our intellectual life'. (7).

She further writes that symbolic logic 'is an instrument of exact thought, both analytic and constructive'. (7).

It is useful not only within the scientific method (7) but also works against the muddles of modern philosophical thought. (7).

Again there is an academic and epistemological connection between mathematics and philosophy.

Philosophy of Religion being very closely related to theology, both philosophical theology and Biblical theology.

Introduction

The author connects algebra with logic in the mathematical context. (18-19).

'...(The book) it seeks to show the bearing of logic on natural science and philosophy of nature. (19).

It is a course on symbolic logic and philosophy of nature. (19).

The text claims to be for an upperclassmen at a Bachelor's level or someone at a Graduate level (19), so a classic academic text used within mathematics, science and philosophy.

Bogus Dilemma

Lake Como, Italy: Villadestedotcom

Bogus Dilemma

Preface

Originally a January 15, 2016 posting, edited and revised for an entry on academia.edu, July 30, 2023

Pirie: Bogus Dilemma

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

'The bogus dilemma is the fallacy of falsely or mistakenly presenting a dilemma where none exists.' (53). 'The fallacy in the false dilemma consists of presenting false consequences or a false choice, and it will be of most use to you in situations where decisions which you oppose are being contemplated. Quickly you step in, pointing out that one of two things will happen, and that bad results will follow either way'. (54). The author lists the fallacious example of allowing a hostel for problem teenagers in the area as in 'either it will be empty or it will be full'. (54). If empty the hostel would be a waste of money, if the hostel is full there will be too much trouble for the area to handle. (54). This is fallacious because it is very possible the hostel for teenagers may be neither too empty, nor too full and both perceived problems could be negated.

I reason that there is black and white within philosophy and theology and that it is not fallacious to hold to for example, in the Gospel context, that either one is in Christ or outside of Christ (John 14: 6). Whomever is not written in the Lamb's Book Of Life is outside of the everlasting Kingdom of God (Revelation 3:5, Revelation 20, 21: 27).

Bifurcation is a fallacy when there is a denial of extra choices. (48). By the exclusion of relevant items (48), relevant options. This does not mean therefore that everything within reality, including all philosophy and theology contains gray/grey options and nothing is ever black and white. Truth can include limited choice. Pirie admits bifurcation often occurs in a dilemma where only two possible choices exist. (49-50). Therefore bifurcation would not always be fallacious. The 'dilemma itself is a sound form of argument'. (49).

It is important to reason out within philosophy, the actual dilemmas, in contrast to false and bogus dilemmas. For example, in the context of my review of this Pirie text, if one accepts naturalism and some forms of empiricism, then post-mortem, non-existence is the most likely occurrence for humanity. In other words, if there are more reasonable possibilities post-mortem than the New Testament model, after the resurrection (Revelation 20, 1 Corinthians 15) than either being within the Kingdom of God, or instead being within the lake of fire, it would then be the case that the Biblical model would present a false and bogus dilemma. Non-exhaustively, other highly unlikely, but theoretical post-mortem possibilities, include, reincarnation, spending everlasting life on other planets with aliens, living everlastingly with Thor and Norse gods.

But the Biblical, New Testament, worldview presents a dilemma of sorts, based on my understanding of the Pirie text. There are two possibilities only. Other such philosophical theories would be non-Biblical. Even if a traditionally, Reformed view of everlasting, conscious punishment is rejected in favour of annihilation, in regards to everlasting punishment, it still takes place within the lake of fire of Revelation 20, with everlasting effect as in Revelation 21-22.

Texas State University

Department of Philosophy: False Dilemma 

Some cited examples of this fallacy from Texas State University

(My reply in brackets)

Are you a Republican or a Democrat? 

(Neither, I am not an American voter)

If you're not going to heaven, you must be going to you-know-where. 

(Admittedly, to credit this cited source, logically, it is possible that there are more than two alternatives, post-mortem, as already noted.) 

BRUCE, F.F. (1986) ‘Revelation’, in F.F. Bruce (gen.ed.), The International Bible Commentary, Grand Rapids, Marshall Pickering/ Zondervan. 

COURSON, JON (2005) Application Commentary, Thomas Nelson, Nashville. 

DUNNETT, WALTER M. (2001) Exploring The New Testament, Wheaton, Crossway Books.

ELWELL, WALTER AND YARBROUGH, ROBERT W., Third Edition (2013) Encountering The New Testament, Grand Rapids, Baker Academic.

FEE, GORDON D. (1987) The First Epistle To The Corinthians, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

GUNDRY, ROBERT (1981) A Survey of the New Testament, Grand Rapids, Zondervan.

HOCKING, DAVID (2014) The Book of Revelation, Tustin, California, HFT Publications.

JOHNSON A.F. (1996) 'Book of Life’, in Walter A. Elwell (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Books. 

KANE, ROBERT HILLARY (1996) ‘Book of Life’, in Robert Audi (ed.), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

MARSH, PAUL, W. (1986) ‘1 Corinthians’, in F.F. Bruce, (ed.), The International Bible Commentary, Grand Rapids, Marshall Pickering/Zondervan.     

MARSHALL, ALFRED (1975)(1996) The Interlinear KJV-NIV, Grand Rapids, Zondervan. 

MOUNCE, ROBERT H. (1990) The Book of Revelation, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY, Department of Philosophy, Texas, USA.

https://www.txst.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/False-Dilemma.html

Baculum, Argumentum Ad

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PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

'When reason fails you, appeal to the rod.' (46).

Pirie lists Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin as a classic adherent. (47).

This fallacious approach uses force as means of persuasion as the argument would be lost without it. (46).

This would be a philosophical and psychological tool at times of political dictatorships, radical religious fundamentalists, radical liberals, and the corporate world, as examples.

The fallacy could be used on a parental level...

The threat of force does not have to be in the form of physical violence. (46). This fallacy occurs when 'unpleasant consequences are promised for failing to comply with the speaker's wishes'. (46).

The author reasons that irrelevant material is brought into an argument. (46). The argument is largely abandoned and instead, forceful persuasion is used and depended on. There is a 'breakdown and subversion of reason'. (46).

Philosophy Home Page

Cited

'I. Argumentum ad Baculum (fear of force): the fallacy committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the acceptance of a conclusion. The ad baculum derives its strength from an appeal to human timidity or fear and is a fallacy when the appeal is not logically related to the claim being made. In other words, the emotion resulting from a threat rather than a pertinent reason is used to cause agreement with the purported conclusion of the argument.

The ad baculum contains implicitly or explicitly a threat. Behind this threat is often the idea that in the end, "Might makes right." Threats, per se, however, are not fallacies because they involve behavior, not arguments.

Often the informal structure of argumentum ad baculum is as follows.

If statement p is accepted or action a is done, then logically irrelevant event x will happen. Event x is bad, dangerous, or threatening. Therefore, statement p is true or action a should be rejected.'

Cited

'II. Examples of ad baculum fallacies:

Chairman of the Board: "All those opposed to my arguments for the opening of a new department, signify by saying, ‘I resign.’

" The Department of Transportation needs to reconsider the speed limit proposals on interstate highways for the simple reason that if they do not, their departmental budget for Department of Transportation will be cut by 25%.'

End Citations

My example

Space Commander: 'All those opposed to my orders in regard to the new security measures can open up the airlock and step outside and go for a very long walk...'

Bifurcation: Black & White Fallacy

Vancouver: January 1

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

'The presentation of only two alternatives where others exist is called the fallacy of bifurcation.' (48). Sometimes known as 'black and white' fallacy. (48). 'Either/or' is presented as options where in reality there are other options. (48).

The concept of when other options exist is key.

Pirie uses a classic example:

'If you are not with us, you are against us'. (48).

I, for example, having spent two years in the corporate world working on site for a corporation with trillions of United States Dollars in assets would support a living wage for all workers and therefore would be in agreement with some on the political left; but I would not be in agreement with radical leftist concepts of redistribution of wealth.

For example, I do not reason that a corporate janitor should make the same wage as a Chief Executive Officer. The CEO (at least idealistically) offers a higher level of service to the corporation than a janitor and should receive higher compensation.

I take a moderate conservative position, heeding to James

James 5:1-6

New American Standard Bible (NASB)

5 Come now, you rich, weep and howl for your miseries which are coming upon you.

2 Your riches have rotted and your garments have become moth-eaten.

3 Your gold and your silver have rusted; and their rust will be a witness against you and will consume your flesh like fire. It is in the last days that you have stored up your treasure!

4 Behold, the pay of the laborers who mowed your fields, and which has been withheld by you, cries out against you; and the outcry of those who did the harvesting has reached the ears of the Lord of [a]Sabaoth.

5 You have lived luxuriously on the earth and led a life of wanton pleasure; you have [b]fattened your hearts in a day of slaughter.

6 You have condemned and [c]put to death the righteous man; he does not resist you. Footnotes: James 5:4 I.e. Hosts James 5:5 Lit nourished James 5:6 Or murdered

New American Standard Bible (NASB)

I would prefer a living wage be primarily employer and employee regulated, market and corporate regulated, for those employers that can reasonably afford it and then secondarily be government regulated.

Therefore, I may be viewed as being against radical leftist views on this issue, because I do not support their radical anti-capitalistic agenda, even while being in some agreement on the need for living wage where an employer can reasonably provide and afford it.

But, this demonstrates a gray/grey area of philosophy.

However, within my Biblical worldview, I also do hold that there is black and white within philosophy and theology and that it is not fallacious to hold to for example, in the Gospel context, that either one is in Christ or outside of Christ (John 14: 6). Whomever is not written in the Lamb's Book Of Life is outside of the everlasting Kingdom of God (Revelation 3:5, Revelation 20, 21: 27).

Bifurcation is a fallacy when there is a denial of extra choices. (48). By the exclusion of relevant items (48), relevant options.

This does not mean therefore that everything within reality, including all philosophy and theology contains gray/grey options and nothing is ever black and white.

Truth can include limited choice.

Pirie admits bifurcation often occurs in a dilemma where only two possible choices exist. (49-50).

The 'dilemma itself is a sound form of argument'. (49).