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This is a brief and non-exhaustive article concerning theories on the atoning work of Christ. I am presently busy working on final PhD dissertation revisions, but wish to share a short presentation based on this research.
Atonement is a very complex theological issue and there are various perspectives from Biblical scholars. Millard J. Erickson explains that atonement theory is multifaceted including the concepts of sacrifice, propitiation (appeasement of God), substitution and reconciliation. (1994: 811-823). Atonement theory in regard to Christ would be major PhD thesis itself and is beyond the scope of my problem of evil/theodicy dissertation, and yet concepts are related to my work.
I review Augustine within my PhD dissertation and his sacrificial atonement views are not central to the thesis but Augustine describes Christ’s atoning work as a means by which Christ could bring humanity back to a right relationship with God, and discusses the concept of Christ restoring people from the hands of the adversary. Augustine (398-399)(1992:178). Augustine also notes that Christ is the true mediator between sinful humanity and God, and this mediation is what brings people to righteousness. Augustine (398-399)(1992: 219). Augustine notes that Christ died in order that through his death believers could ultimately be saved from everlasting death through the resurrection. Augustine (400-416)(1987)(2004: Book 4: Chapter 13: 11).
There are other views including the accident, martyr, and moral influence theories, which feature similar approaches that are popular among modern scholars. Thiessen (1956: 315). Thiessen notes that the modern accident theory sees no significant value in the death of Christ. Thiessen (1956: 315). Christ was a good man who died because his religious views differed from the religious leaders of the day, but there was no further significance to his death. Thiessen (1956: 315). The accident theory would be a possible influence upon some within the mainline liberal denominations that view Christ’s teaching as that of a good man, but question whether Christ died for the sins of humanity. The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod belief and practices volume writers, Erwin L. Lueker, Luther Poellot, and Paul Jackson note that the accident theory would view Christ’s death as unforeseen, unexpected and unfortunate. Lueker, Poellot, and Jackson (2000: 4). In other words, many versions of the accident theory do not attach a divine plan to Christ’s death.
The modern martyr theory is a similar view to the accident theory in that through Christ’s example and peaceful opposition to the religious leaders of his day, people could see that there was a need for religious reform within religious organizations. Thiessen (1956: 316). This concept would also view human beings as needing to be reformed spiritually and Christ provided an excellent example of this in his death. Thiessen (1956: 316). This approach would not require Christ to be a sacrifice for sins, but instead be an example of a human being who has become religiously reformed. Thiessen (1956: 316). Lueker, Poellot and Jackson explain that a key for the martyr theory is that Christ died for a principle of religious truth, Lueker, Poellot, and Jackson (2000: 4). The idea being for those that hold this theory was that God used Christ to oppose the religious falsehoods that prevented human beings from having true religious experiences with God.
Peter Abelard is credited with developing the historic moral influence theory, according to R.D. Lister’s article entitled ‘Peter Abelard’. Linder (1996: 2). Abelard describes his atonement view in Commentaria in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos, which in English is Commentary on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Abelard (1121)(2006: 13). Within it he writes that contrary to Anselm’s satisfaction theory, God had forgiven sins through love before Christ came to earth and that Christ had taken the suffering for human sin upon himself. Abelard (1121)(2006: 13). F.W. Robertson explains that this theory understood that God was not at all angry with his Son, but instead Christ bore the sins of humanity as he clashed with evil and died because of it. Robertson in Thiessen (1857)(1956: 174). As Christ took on evil and prevailed over it by remaining true to God, he was able to influence people through the establishment of Christianity.
The satisfaction theory of Saint Anselm deduces that Christ was an atoning sacrifice for the sins of humanity, and this theory is not in drastic opposition to Augustine’s prior theory. Anselm states within The Cur Deus Homo, which in English is Why God Became Man, that it was fitting that as death entered into the human race by one man’s disobedience, life should enter by one man’s obedience. Anselm (1094-1098)(1968)(2006: 51). For Anselm, Christ was providing satisfaction to God for sin but was also the perfect sacrifice for sin, much as Augustine had proposed earlier. Anselm (1094-1098)(1968)(2006: 51).
Origen presented the ransom view of atonement. In his Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Origen explains that the atoning work of Christ was a ransom price as Christ gave up his life in order that human beings could have their lives back. Origen (ca 203-250)(2001: 30). The primary historical exponent of this view is Gustav Aulen who wrote Christus Victor and the journal article ‘Chaos and Cosmos: The Drama of Atonement’ both in 1950. In Christus Victor, he explains that the central theme of atonement is Christ’s dramatic victory over Satan, sin, and death. Aulen (1950a: 14). Through the incarnated Christ’s death and resurrection, Aulen notes in this drama that Christ reconciles the world to himself. Aulen (1950a: 5). In ‘Chaos and Cosmos’ Aulen writes that every Christian doctrine of atonement should include the concept that the love of God through Christ destroys the evil powers. Aulen (1950b: 156). The atonement should be primarily viewed as the means by which God provided humanity with victory over evil and reconciliation with God. Aulen (1950b: 158). Aulen like Anselm did view Christ’s atoning work as sacrifice, but Aulen points out it was done willingly by Christ who suffered and then overcame evil. Aulen (1950b: 162). The ransom theory of atonement places less importance on God’s need for justice and sacrifice, and more of an emphasis on God freeing humanity from the bonds of Satan, sin, and death. Instead of atonement being mainly about a sacrifice offered to God for sin from humankind in Christ, Gustaf Wingren states that Aulen’s view is primarily concerned with God overcoming evil for his people. Wingren (1965: 310).
Erickson states Paul mentions the concept of propitiation in Romans 3: 25. Erickson (1994: 809-810). C.H. Dodd explains that the Greek word in Romans 3: 25 should be translated expiation and not propitiation, and claims that many Greek translations have been incorrect. Dodd (1935:82-95). Anthony D. Palma (2007) defines propitiation as to appease or pacify, while expiation means to atone for as in offering or sacrifice. Palma (2007: 1). Palma explains that some argue propitiation must be rejected in favour of expiation since propitiation and its divine wrath is a concept that comes from pagan origins where pagan deities were appeased through sacrifice. Palma (2007: 1). Palma concludes with the idea that within the New Testament propitiation includes the idea of expiation, but expiation does not necessarily include the idea of propitiation. Palma (2007: 1). James Strong defines that the word under review in Romans 3: 25 hilasterion, in general terms only as an expiatory place or thing, an atoning victim, mercyseat, and propitiation. Strong (1986: 48). This definition although somewhat vague does not contradict Palma’s concept that propitiation does include the idea of expiation, but Strong’s definition alone does not provide specific context for the word in Romans. Strong (1986: 48). In context of the particular verse, Walter Bauer writes that the meaning in Romans 3: 25 is uncertain and could be either expiates or propitiates. Bauer (1979: 375). The Greek word allows for as myself within moderate conservative academic thought to conclude expiation and propitiation, both sacrifice and appeasement are reasonable concepts within Christian atonement.
ABELARD, PETER (ca. 1121)(2006) Jeffery E. Brower, and Kevin Guilfoy (eds.), Commentaria in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos, Commentary on the Epistle of Paul, A complete list of Abelard’s Writings, West Lafayette, Indiana, Purdue University.http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~brower/Papers/Introduction%20to%20Cam%20Comp.pdf
ANSELM, SAINT (1094-1098)(1968)(2006) Cur Deus Homo, Why God Became Man, in Schmitt, Franciscus Salesius, S. Anselmi Cantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera Omnia. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Friedrich Fromann Verlag.http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/anselm.htm#H7.
AUGUSTINE (398-399)(1992) Confession, Translated by Henry Chadwick, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
AUGUSTINE (400-416)(1987)(2004) On the Trinity, Translated by Reverend. Arthur West Haddan, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series One, Volume 3, Denver, the Catholic Encyclopedia.http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130104.htm.
AULEN, GUSTAV (1950a) Christus Victor, Translated by A.G. Hebert, London, S.P.C.K.
AULEN, GUSTAV (1950b) ‘Chaos and Cosmos: The Drama of Atonement’, in Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, Volume 4, April, Number 2, New York, Interpretation.
BAUER, WALTER. (1979) A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Translated by Eric H. Wahlstrom, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
DODD. C.H. (1935) The Bible and the Greeks, London, Hodder and Stoughton.
ERICKSON, MILLARD (1994) Christian Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.
LINDER, R.D. (1996) ‘Abelard, Peter’, in Walter A. Elwell (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, p 2. Grand Rapids, Baker Books.
LUECKER, ERWIN L, LUTHER POELLOT, AND PAUL JACKSON, (2000) Lutheran Church Missouri Synod,: Christian Cyclopedia, Saint Louis: The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod.http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=A&t2=t.
ORIGEN (ca. 203-250)(2001) Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew,
Peter Kirby, California, Early Christian Writings.http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen-matthew.html.
PALMA, ANTHONY (2007) ‘Propitiation’ in Enrichment Journal, Springfield Missouri, Enrichment Journal.http://enrichmentjournal.ag.org/top/Easter_2007/2007_Propitiation.pdf
ROBERTSON, F.W. (1887)(1956) ‘Sermons: First Series’, in Thiessen, Henry C. Introductory Lectures in Systematic Theology, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
STRONG, J. (1986) Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Pickering, Ontario, Welch Publishing Company.
THIESSEN, HENRY C. (1956) Introductory Lectures in Systematic Theology, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
WINGREN, GUSTAF (1965) ‘Gustaf Aulen’ in A Handbook of Christian Theologians, Nashville, Abingdon Press.
Solva, Pembrokeshire, Wales (photo from trekearth.com)
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