The clash of universes?

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York. (Philosophy)

The continuation of text review:

Key symbols

≡df = Equivalence by definition
: = Equal (s)
ε = Epsilon and means is
⊃ = Is the same as
⊨ is Entails
˜ = Not
∃ = There exists
∃! = There exists
∴ = Therefore
· = Therefore
< = Is included
v = a logical inclusive disjunction (disjunction is the relationship between two distinct alternatives).
x = variable
· = Conjunction meaning And
0 = Null class
cls = Class
int= Interpretation

Primitive concepts, terms and relations, within symbolic logic are not explained, but are simply 'taken for granted'. (167). These meanings are provided by interpretation only in the context provided. (167). The symbols for houses and related is an example as these symbolic interpretations. (167).

For clarity, philosopher, Langer writes that there is a new context assumed. (167). In this context the formal context has elements which are certain classes. (168).

Let us note that Langer adds another symbol: cls, which is the usual symbol for class.

From page 168:

K= int (interpreted) as class of houses
B = int (interpreted) as class of brick houses
W = int (interpreted) as class of white houses
-B = int (interpreted) as class of  not-brick houses
-W = int (interpreted) as class of not-white houses
B x W =int (interpreted) as class of white brick houses
---
0 = int (interpreted) as class of no houses
I = int (interpreted) as class of all houses

On page 170, Langer states that a very important point is that there is a difference between:

K = The universe of discourse (Is this context established by Langer)

&

I = The universe class

Langer warns against identifying the universe of discourse with the greatest class that is within it. (170). Langer explains that the error of equating the universe of discourse with the universe of class, was made by John Venn is his Symbolic Logic of 1881. Langer instead reasons that I does not equate with K, but rather I is an element within K. (170).

My equations

˜ (I ⊨ K)

The universe class does not entail the universe of discourse.

˜ (I ⊃ K)

The universe class is not the same as the universe of discourse.

In other words the universe of discourse contains the universe class. The universe class does not contain the universe of discourse.

In Three Minutes: Birds of a Feather, Flock Together/Student versus Teacher

Brought to you by McDonalds



In regard to the engineer, that I stated should be teachable, but his theology, denied that God was infinite, reasoning that God had made promises is his Scripture, therefore making self-finite. Two friends have opined that I was right to admonish him for this theological error and his unwillingness to be taught.

This is primitive

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York. (Philosophy)

The continuation of text review:

Key symbols

≡df = Equivalence by definition
: = Equal (s)
ε = Epsilon and means is
⊃ = Is the same as
⊨ is Entails
˜ = Not
∃ = There exists
∃! = There exists
∴ = Therefore
· = Therefore
< = Is included
v = a logical inclusive disjunction (disjunction is the relationship between two distinct alternatives).
x = variable
· = Conjunction meaning And
0 = Null class
---

Classes as 'primitive concepts' in a system

Philosopher Langer expresses the idea that there are clear and economical propositions that express the entire system with a few symbols. (166). This rests on a tedious process of translation and re-translation. (166).

Most that have been following this review, which is alternated with other articles, will likely agree that learning symbol logic is indeed tedious!

It has been billed by Langer as (paraphrased) an academic alternative to more confusing syntax language, but in reality, in my humble opinion, only a few academic types in philosophy and mathematics will find learning symbolic logic helpful.

Even so, as my PhD (Wales) was in Theology and Philosophy of Religion, it is useful to learn more symbolic logic than the little amount I did during writing my British theses. At the same time, there are some good lessons to learn in regard to logic and reason from Philosopher, Langer.

Langer states that classes are not empty. They are not zero. (166). A class in not 0 = null class.

(∃! wt) : ˜ (0)

There exists white houses equals not null class. White houses are a class.

Symbolic logic requires a formal context in order for anything to be stated. (166-167). A great difficulty is that the typical reader will not grasp the context of symbolic logic, and/or especially in a 2017, Western context, which is in general, distinctly non-philosophical, even have the desire to attempt to learn the context of any symbolic logic.

Primitive concepts, terms and relations, within symbolic logic are not explained, but are simply 'taken for granted'. (167). These meanings are provided by interpretation only in the context provided. (167). The symbols for houses and related is an example as these symbolic interpretations. (167).

The author writes that to avoid ambiguity with literary grammar and syntax. words are replaced in symbolic logic with arbitrary symbols. (52).

Having reviewed now nearly half of this textbook, I can grant that technically, Langer's premise could be correct, I suppose. Symbolic logic could be more clear than literary, grammar and syntax.

However, practically, even most academics are more familiar with syntax language than symbolic logic, and it is an understatement to write that this will not change any time soon.

Aggressive martyrdom?

Text review continued

Today: Cleaned and upgraded gas fireplace and also four new SUV tires.

WALLACE TOM Jr. (2015) Refuting Islam, The Christian Patriots Guide to Exposing the Evils of Islam, Bellingham, Fundamental Publishers.

Chapter One:The Fantacizers Cont.

In Equal Opportunity Destroyer, the author states that Islam not only wars with Christianity but also with any worldview (my term) that does not submit to Muhammad's God, Allah. (8).

Mr. Wallace opines that Jihadist groups such as ISIS, Al Qaeda, Hammas and Hezbollah, to name a few, truly represent Islam. (9).

The author then quotes the seven blessings of Shahid (10). These are eternal rewards for dying as an Islamic martyr. (10).

From an Islamic source:

Islam Question and Answer

'Praise be to Allaah.

It was reported in the hadeeth of al-Miqdaam ibn Ma’di Karb that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said:

“The martyr (shaheed) has seven blessings from Allaah: he is forgiven from the moment his blood is first shed; he will be shown his place in Paradise; he will be spared the trial of the grave; and he will be secure on the Day of the Greatest Terror (the Day of Judgement); there will be placed on his head a crown of dignity, one ruby of which is better than this world and all that is in it; he will be married to seventy-two of al-hoor al-‘iyn; and he will be permitted to intercede for seventy of his relatives.”

According to another report, the martyr has six blessings from Allaah. According to other reports (the number is) six, or nine, or ten.

(Narrated by al-Tirmidhi, who said it is a hasan hadeeth. Also narrated by Ibn Maajah in al-Sunan, by Ahmad, by ‘Abd al-Razzaaq in al-Musannaf, by al-Tabaraani in al-Kabeer, and by Sa’eed ibn Mansoor in al-Sunan). -- Shaykh Waleed al-Firyaan'
---

In this book review so far, in balance, I documented that although both orthodox and radical forms of Islam hold to Jihad/Holy War, the orthodox interpretation is that Jihad is for defensive purposes. The Islamic Supreme Council of America states:

'WHAT JIHAD IS'

 'The Arabic word "jihad" is often translated as "holy war," but in a purely linguistic sense, the word " jihad" means struggling or striving.' 'In a religious sense, as described by the Quran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (s), "jihad" has many meanings. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslims or believer, as well as working to inform people about the faith of Islam.'

'If military jihad is required to protect the faith against others, it can be performed using anything from legal, diplomatic and economic to political means. If there is no peaceful alternative, Islam also allows the use of force, but there are strict rules of engagement. Innocents - such as women, children, or invalids - must never be harmed, and any peaceful overtures from the enemy must be accepted. Military action is therefore only one means of jihad, and is very rare.'

Comparing the hadeeth of al-Miqdaam ibn Ma’di Karb text to the explanation from the Islamic Supreme Council of America; I will take the Islamic Supreme Council of America at their word that Jihad is primarily defensive. In other words, that is their scholarly interpretation.

I am going to attempt to not judge motives.

Mr. Wallace points out that this section (the hadeeth of al-Miqdaam ibn Ma’di Karb from my Islamic source) is not in the Qur'an, which is assumed to be the words of Allah (11), whereas this section is in the Sunnah and is the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. (11). Both are considered Scripture in Islam. (11). Both are used in determining Islamic law/Sharia. (11).

The state/religion context of Islam is problematic. The original intent of the hadeeth of al-Miqdaam ibn Ma’di Karb text may have been more aggressively militaristic, as in implying that the Muslim needed (needs) to be willing to be a martyr because dying for the state, in a military conflict equates to dying for Allah and the Prophet. Because Jihad exists in a state/religion context, it could also be interpreted that there are very significant eternal rewards for aggressive martyrdom (as opposed to passive martyrdom).