Larger societies in early North Americas

AMSCO

NEWMAN J. NEWMAN AND SCHMALBACH, JOHN M. (2010) Second Edition, United States History: Preparing For The Advanced Placement Examination, Logan, Iowa, AMSCO.

Larger societies in early North Americas

The text review continues...

Chapter 1: Exploration, Discovery, And Settlement, 1492-1700

Cultures

The authors estimate the Northern Americas population (North of Mexico) as being from under one million to ten million. (1). This in the 1490's, in the era of the Columbus voyages. (1).
It is reasoned the native men were hunters and tool makers (1) and the native women farmed with crops such as corn, beans and tobacco. (1). As is a traditional view, many of the tribes were nomadic; but some more than others (1). On the legendary Great Plains the Sioux and the Pawnee followed Buffalo herds.

However, contrary to common thought, there were some larger societies. (2). The Pueblos in the Southwest lived in multistoried buildings. They also developed complex irrigation and farming systems. (2).

There were other larger societies mentioned as well, but notably, in the now New York area, the Iroquois tribes formed a political confederacy, the League of Iroquois, which battled other native tribes from the Americas and also European colonizers during the 17th and 18th centuries. (2).

This text is enlightening in emphasizing the existence of well-documented larger societies that existed in the earliest development of North America. My grade school education (British Columbia), for example, heavily emphasized the nomadic nature of Native North Americans, but this textbook provides another perspective.

Based on my first two entries, this is an enlightening textbook.

It is important to on many issues, actually check and review academic sources, as opposed to accepting commonly held views, such as that the tribes of the Native Americas were all nomadic to the exclusion that some formed larger societies.

United States of America History: Textbook

AMSCO

United States of America History: Textbook

NEWMAN J. NEWMAN AND SCHMALBACH, JOHN M. (2010) Second Edition, United States History: Preparing For The Advanced Placement Examination, Logan, Iowa, AMSCO.

As as aspect of my academic work, I have been asked to consider, if the opportunity arises, teaching United States of America history, with the textbook in images as the text in use.

As can be viewed, I did not 'go all out' to purchase a brand new copy. I reasoned that the best price for a good used copy was sufficient.

Textbooks are often very expensive.

This serves as another opportunity for a book review series.

Preface

The textbook on page v claims to be a 'concise history', that is concise and accessible. (v). It is also stated to be easy to review for context. (v). One of my complaints, as a student, with 'artistic' type academic writers, sometimes from the United Kingdom, was that he/she would not just 'get to the point' (soon enough) as I had thousands of pages to review for my MPhil and PhD theses, and was not reviewing textbooks for reading pleasure.

Chapter 1: Exploration, Discovery, And Settlement, 1492-1700

The authors document that the exploration, discovery and settlement of North America and South America took place thousands of years before the birth of Christopher Columbus. (1). The authors estimate that North America was settled perhaps 40, 000 years ago. (1).

The text then provides the Bering Land Bridge Theory...

Approximately, 40, 000 years ago, migrants from Asia may have crossed a land bridge that at the time connected Siberia (Modern Russia, my add) and Alaska, (1). This land bridge may now be submerged under the Bering Sea. (1). This bridge may have facilitated travels from Siberia to as far as the tip of South America. (1).

In other words, the first inhabitants of the Americas, the Natives (or preferred accepted name) may originally be of Asian origin. The following statistic surprised me as the writers estimate the Native population of the Americas in the 1490s to vary from 50 million to 75 million. (1).

Fifty to seventy five million persons and yet the Americas remained virtually unknown (I presume) to the old world of Europe and Asia for thousands of years? Possible, according to the authors.

AMSCO

More about cowardice or cash?

WALLACE TOM Jr. (2015) Refuting Islam, The Christian Patriots Guide to Exposing the Evils of Islam, Bellingham, Fundamental Publishers.

The book review continues... 

Chapter Four: Taking A Stand

In a Culture of Cowards, Mr. Wallace opines that if (paraphrased) someone criticizes Islam that he/she will be labelled in a negative way as in offensive. (31).

I can grant this proposition. At this point in Western society it is often considered non-politically correct and conservative, to critique Islam negatively.  As I wrote in the last review (January 15 2018), there are financial considerations to why many politicians will not critique Islam negatively.

Cited

'I would opine that Western governments are very concerned with economy and investment. If persons from Islamic countries can bring investment money into their Western nations, especially, 'money talks'. Religion is a significant concern, in a political context when it is considered radical, in other words, a threat to the Western secular 'status quo'.
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In regard to many of these cases is this more about cowardice or cash?

I would add that Western business people, besides politicians, would also have more interest in Muslims for their investment funds, as opposed to being very concerned with Islamic theology. For the most part, there is only concern from the powers that be, in Western society, when in particular, the financial system is challenged by opposing views such as radical Islam that uses violence and terrorism.

Radical Islam does not have enough military force to overtake the West and take away freedom, but radical Islam can disrupt the economy.

Mr. Wallace opines that there is cowardice from the pulpits of America (31).

By all means, when appropriate, I reason that Christian, Biblical pastors should explains the differences between New Testament theology and the theology of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. As I respectfully mentioned June 7 2017:

Cited

As a very brief, non-exhaustive, explanation, I reject Islam because it is chronologically later (claimed) revelation than the New Testament and Hebrew Bible. It is originally from Arabia, not Israel and Europe and not within the traditions of the Hebrew Bible and New Testament. Islamic doctrine rejects essential New Testament doctrine, such the trinity and deity of Jesus Christ, the atoning and resurrection work of Jesus Christ.

In contrast, the new covenant of the New Testament replaces and amplifies the old covenant of the Hebrew Bible. If it replaced with outright contradiction, illogic, it would be void. The New Testament is viewed as progressive revelation from the Old Testament. The Bible is not 'flat', but neither would outright contradiction be intellectually tenable.

Yet, Islam, in part claims the divine validity of the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, while denying and contradicting certain biblical essentials. This is fatal contradiction. The importance of this should not be overlooked. Being an Abrahamic, monotheistic faith in no way counters this fatal objection. The New Testament, for example, having thousands of manuscripts in whole or in part for support which would be contradicted outright by later Islamic rejection of the trinity and salvific work of Jesus Christ.

For me the popularity of Islam is irrelevant as a truth claim. I would place more credibility in a supposed, hypothetical, religious worldview which presented something new and denied the divine inspiration of the previous biblical revelation which it contradicts in regard to certain essential theology.

The Truth of the Proposition

Macintosh

The Truth of the Proposition

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York. (Philosophy)

Preface

The continuation of text review:

Key symbols

≡df = Equivalence by definition
: = Equal (s)
ε = Epsilon and means is
⊃ = Is the same as
⊨ is Entails
˜ = Not
∃ = There exists
∃! = There exists
∴ = Therefore
· = Therefore
< = Is included
v = a logical inclusive disjunction (disjunction is the relationship between two distinct alternatives).
x = variable
· = Conjunction meaning And
0 = Null class
cls = Class
int = Interpretation
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Previously

Langer explains that a proposition can only be known via another proposition. (183). Implication is a relation that only holds among propositions. (183). Propositions are regarded as postulates. (185). A postulate needs to belong to the system, in the language of that system. A postulate should imply further propositions of that system. A postulate should not contradict any other accepted postulate, or any other proposition implied by another postulate. (185).

In other words, symbolic logic requires non-contradiction within its system in a universe of discourse.

Requirements

Coherence: Every proposition in the system must cohere to the established conceptual structure. (185). It must be in coherence with the rest.

Contributiveness : A postulate should contribute and have implication. (185-186).

Consistency: Most important states Langer (186). Two contradictory propositions (or premises) cannot contradict each other in a system. (186). The inconsistent is logically impossible. It is a fatal condition. (186). It is not logic at all. (186).

Independence: Postulates should be independent from each other. (186). If a proposition is deductible from a postulate already provided, then it is a theorem, a necessary fact, not another assumption. (186). Something provable in a theorem would be error to include as a postulate. (186). I would reason that within philosophy there would be plenty of debate on what is a proposition/premise within systems and what would be a theorem. Langer explains that when a theorem needs elucidation, any proposition implied by another proposition as granted and proved within a system is a theorem. (186-187).
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The Truth of the Proposition

Philosopher Langer writes that in the book, so far, nothing had been mentioned in regard to the truth of a proposition. (188). An implied proposition is true if all the premises are true. (188). The implied proposition could also be defined as the conclusion. If the premises are false, she opines that the proposition may or may not be true. (188).

There can be false premises and a true conclusion for a valid argument, but there cannot be true premise (s) and false conclusion with validity.

Validity is a set of premises supporting a conclusion. Technically in logic the premises do not have to be true, simply valid. Elements (1997: 33).

Therefore a valid deductive argument can have

False premises and a true conclusion (FT)

False premises and a false conclusion (FF)

True premises and a true conclusion (TT)

However

True premises and a false conclusion (TF) is invalid.

Valid arguments with all true premises are called sound arguments. These include a true conclusion.

Langer explains

Brutus killed Caesar ⊃ Caesar is dead. (188). (⊃ is means the same as).

Since the implied premise is true the proposition is also true (consequent). (188). Blackburn explains 'Any proposition of the form 'if p then q'. The condition hypothesized, p, is called the antecedent of the conditional, and q the consequent'. Blackburn (1996: 73).

If

Brutus killed Caesar ˜ ⊃ (Brutus did not kill Caesar) Caesar is dead  (my equation using not the same)

This would not change the implication that Caesar was dead. (188). Brutus did not kill Caesar; Caesar died in another way.

Brutus fatally stabbed Caesar ∴ (therefore) Caesar is dead

Brutus murdered Caesar ⊨ (entails) Caesar is dead

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BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 

CONWAY DAVID A. AND RONALD MUNSON (1997) The Elements of Reasoning, Wadsworth Publishing Company, New York.

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.