Ambiguous Language

Poland: trekearth

Back to a review of the Langer text on Symbolic Logic, after a break since March as I was facilitating on a local church course and posting related articles.

The previous Langer post needs to be restated for context:

Chapter 2: The Essentials Of Logical Structure 

Langer provides further equations continued from the Chapter: pages 53-54

1. I played bridge with my three cousins

2. I played chess with my three cousins (53)

A=Speaker

B, C, D=Three cousins (54)

A br B, C, D (54)

If in chess each player was played separately

A ch B
A ch C
A ch D
A ch (B-C-D)* (54)

*The hyphen which could also be a + expresses an operation when the two terms are united as one. (54)

So this could be A ch (B+C+D)

I take it here the author means uniting B-C-D, as she explains this will be explained more later and must at this point be taken in faith. (54)

It is actually three terms, but I take the point and she means two or more.

---

'When a relation-symbol stands in a construct, the number of terms grouped with it reveals the degree of the relation. But when it is not actually used, but merely spoken of, it is sometimes convenient to have some way of denoting its degree. This may be done by adding a numerical subscript; for example, "kd2" means that "killing" is dyadic (a pair), "bt3" that "between" is triadic.' (55).

The examples of different degrees are provided:

ch2
br4 (55)

The author states that two beings named 'John' are not likely to be treated as the same in the language of discourse (56). It is made apparent in context that there is this John and that John. (56).

Symbolic logic provides a new medium of such expression. (57).

For example the following

John a

John b

Are a symbolic way of differentiating between two different persons named John using arbitrary symbols as Langer calls them. (58). Although the example is mine.

Langer writes natural language has a tendency to let one word have and embody many meanings and this leads to in philosophical terms fallacious argumentation and reasoning. (55).

In fact, twisted arguments can be created. (55).

A reason for the use of symbolic logic and reasoning as alternative within philosophy.

In a religious context, philosophy of religion crosses over with theology and there are at times theological arguments that are presented both in natural language and with symbolic logic, and so therefore learning both modes of argumentation is beneficial.

---

Continued

Ambiguous Language

Langer explains 'Our linguistic means of conveying relations are highly ambiguous. But the expression of relations is the chief purpose of language. If we were interested only in things and not in their arrangement and connection, we could express ourselves with our forefingers.' (56).

An interesting author example, and the idea of supposed human communication as ape-like creatures within the concept of Darwinian Evolution comes to mind. Assuming that at one point evolving 'humanity' perhaps did communicate by such methods.

This being the case, if indeed one would accept such views over explanations that include both reasonable scientific induction and deduction and a literal view and not mythological view of the historical religious history of Genesis and Scripture. This reasonable approach that can include both plain literal and figurative literal biblical interpretations based on what biblical language and context dictates.

But I digress.

The author explains that in the example, the two John's are not likely to be confused. This is because these relations can be explicitly known in discourse. (56).

However, Langer expresses the idea that terms and concepts not explained clearly through discourse need to be explained when obscurity in communication occurs. (57). In order to escape error 'another sort of discourse' is required. (57).

This being symbolic logic. (57).

A more precise symbolism can bring logic out of language. (57).

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York.

Populum, Argumentum Ad

Recent

This fallacy is a particular irritant and was as well, before I was an academic. But I will attempt objectivity.

Quote

'The argumentum ad populum appeals to popular attitudes instead of presenting relevant material. In other words, it is based on prejudice. It exploits the known propensity of people to accept that which fits in comfortably with their preconceptions. The popular prejudices may or may not be justified, but the speaker who makes his case depend solely upon them is guilty of an ad populum fallacy. Pirie (165).

I am reasoning it should state 'depending'. I do this humbly as I have my share of technical errors, being my own proofreader! I edit when I am aware it is needed.

Further, the author explains that this fallacy can inflame passions and prejudices more appropriate to mass hysteria than to rational discourse. (165).

Those that use this fallacy 'take the easy way out'. (165).

This relates to my philosophical complaint in regard to lazy thinking and cop-out thinking.

Not that any human being has perfect thinking, but at times corrective reasoning should be pursued.

Playing on the emotions of the multitude. (165). Or, trusting in that fallacious type of thinking in regard to personal preferences and convictions, as opposed to researching and asking God for truth, even if that is uncomfortable truth.

Blackburn agrees with Pirie, basically, stating that this fallacy is 'appealing to the prejudices of the people.' (24).

Relevant and obviously non-exhaustive examples:

Significantly accepting the views of a known teacher over a critiques of a less known teacher, because the known teacher is more popular. Not primarily because of the merits of argumentation.

Considering one person in a romantic context over another significantly because it is more socially and culturally acceptable, not mainly based on character and other positive attributes.

BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

Mark Final Study: Robots?

May 11

Christianity Explored

My friend 'Chucky' and the rumoured computer chip installed in his brain. Is he a possible robot candidate and within his hyper-Mennonite upbringing, a classic victim of hard determinism?

Mark Final Study: Robots?

During the Christianity Explored, Gospel of Mark course, finale, a 'seeker', now with a Bible, asked (paraphrased):

Why does God not just create people that believe in Jesus Christ?

An excellent question and actually I view it and its ramifications as a serious objection to a classic libertarian free will defence and incompatibilism.

There are both non-Christian and Reformed objections to libertarian free will views; please see bibliography, in particular Mackie, Flew, Plantinga and Feinberg.

Please also see this site archives.

A kind Roman Catholic, evangelical answered with the classic and typical evangelical church answer (paraphrased):

People could not love God without the option of free will and the option to not to love God; otherwise people were robots.

I respectfully answered that within a Reformed tradition there was a better answer, although her answer had some truth to it. I replied along the lines as I have written in my PhD and on my academic sites which I will present again in a more complex form than in the course:

God could inevitably bring about, through the use of the regeneration and the resurrection of elected human persons, the end of human corruption, and even Plantinga’s concept of transworld depravity. Plantinga (1977)(2002: 53). If God willed and created a finalized Kingdom of restored persons that had experienced the problem of evil and were saved from it, then it could be reasoned that with God’s constant persuasion through the Holy Spirit and human experience and maturity, transworld depravity would never take place again.

No human wrong decision would need to occur as God always determines otherwise, without force and coercion; restored human beings do not lack experience as did the first humans (Adam and Eve) who rebelled against God causing corruption.

I speculate that theological praxis of sovereignty theodicy is more certain and comforting than free will theodicy, as transworld depravity is overcome by taking the primary choice (secondary human choice remains as simultaneously caused by God) of human belief in God away from corrupted human beings. Augustine (421)(1998: Chapter 13: 8). Plantinga (1982: 184-189). Calvin (1539)(1998: Book II, Chapter 2, 7). Luther (1516)(1968: 31). Feinberg (1994: 126-127).

It is placed in the hands of a sovereign God.

I have also written on the issue of God being perfectly able to create significantly free creatures that do not sin:

Greg Welty And Christ As Sinless Human Being (PhD Edit) March 10, 2014

The church table leader kindly attempted to shed light on the discussion by stating I was Reformed and did not believe in free will, but I stated that I do not believe in libertarian free will, but limited free will. I had stated earlier in the conversation that I was a soft determinist.

I realize many incompatibilists will not accept the soft determinism/hard determinism distinction, intellectually preferring a blanket 'determinism' term; but academically, theologically and philosophically, a significant distinction remains:

Significant human will or human free will is removed from a hard determinism model.

Significant human will or limited free will or like (freely) remains within many Reformed models, including mine and that of John S. Feinberg in 'The Many Faces of Evil'.

Some hyper-Calvinists may rightly be considered hard determinists.

Another recent article:

Middle Knowledge Revisited April 20 2016

AUGUSTINE (388-395)(1964) On Free Choice of the Will, Translated by Anna S.Benjamin and L.H. Hackstaff, Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall.

AUGUSTINE (398-399)(1992) Confessions, Translated by Henry Chadwick, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

AUGUSTINE (400-416)(1987)(2004) On the Trinity, Translated by Reverend Arthur West Haddan, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series One, Volume 3, Denver, The Catholic Encyclopedia. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130104.htm

AUGUSTINE (421)(1998) Enchiridion, Translated by J.F. Shaw, Denver, The Catholic Encyclopedia. http://www.knight.org/advent

AUGUSTINE (426)(1958) The City of God, Translated by Gerald G. Walsh, Garden City, New York, Image Books.

AUGUSTINE (427)(1997) On Christian Doctrine, Translated by D.W. Robertson Jr., Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall.

AUGUSTINE (427b)(1997) On Christian Teaching, Translated by R.P.H. Green, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

AULEN, GUSTAV (1950a) Christus Victor, Translated by A.G. Hebert, London, S.P.C.K.

CALVIN, JOHN (1539)(1998) The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book II, Translated by Henry Beveridge, Grand Rapids, The Christian Classic Ethereal Library, Wheaton College. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.html

CALVIN, JOHN (1539)(1998) The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book IV, Translated by Henry Beveridge, Grand Rapids, The Christian Classic Ethereal Library, Wheaton College. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.html

CALVIN, JOHN (1540)(1973) Romans and Thessalonians, Translated by Ross Mackenzie, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

CALVIN, JOHN (1543)(1996) The Bondage and Liberation of the Will, Translated by G.I. Davies, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.

CALVIN, JOHN (1550)(1978) Concerning Scandals, Translated by John W. Fraser, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

CALVIN, JOHN (1552)(1995) Acts, Translated by Watermark, Nottingham, Crossway Books. 

CALVIN, JOHN (1553)(1952) Job, Translated by Leroy Nixon, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House. 

CALVIN, JOHN (1554)(1965) Genesis, Translated by John King, Edinburgh, The Banner of Truth Trust.

CRANFIELD, C.E.B. (1992) Romans: A Shorter Commentary, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1729)(2006) Sovereignty of God, New Haven, Connecticut, Jonathan Edwards Center, Yale University. http://edwards.yale.edu/archive/documents/page?document_id=10817&search_id=&source_type=edited&pagenumber=1

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1731-1733)(2006) Law of Nature, New Haven, Connecticut, Jonathan Edwards Center, Yale University. http://edwards.yale.edu/archive/documents/page?document_id=11207&search_id=606108&source_type=edited&pagenumber=1 

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1754)(2006) Freedom of the Will, Flower Mound, Texas. Jonathanedwards.com. http://www.jonathanedwards.com

FEINBERG, JOHN.S. (1986) Predestination and Free Will, in David Basinger and Randall Basinger (eds.), Downers Grove, Illinois, InterVarsity Press.

FEINBERG, JOHN.S. (1994) The Many Faces of Evil, Grand Rapids, Zondervan Publishing House. 

FEINBERG, JOHN.S. (2001) No One Like Him, John S. Feinberg (gen.ed.), Wheaton, Illinois, Crossway Books.

FLEW, ANTONY (1955) ‘Divine Omnipotence and Human Freedom’, in Antony Flew and A. MacIntrye (eds.), New Essays in Philosophical Theology, London, SCM, in Paul Edwards and Arthur Pap (eds.), A Modern Introduction To Philosophy, New York, The Free Press.

FLEW, ANTONY (1955) ‘Theology and Falsification’, in Antony Flew and A. MacIntrye (eds.), New Essays in Philosophical Theology, London, SCM, in Paul Edwards and Arthur Pap (eds.), A Modern Introduction To Philosophy, New York, The Free Press.

FLEW, ANTONY (1983)(1996) ‘The Falsification Challenge’, in Antony Flew and A. MacIntrye (eds.), New Essays in Philosophical Theology, in Michael Peterson, William Hasker, Bruce Reichenbach, and David Basinger (eds.), Philosophy of Religion, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

FLEW, ANTONY, R.M. HARE, AND BASIL MITCHELL (1996) ‘The Debate on the Rationality of Religious Belief’, in L.P. Pojman (ed.), Philosophy, The Quest for Truth, New York, Wadsworth Publishing Company.

FLEW, ANTONY AND A.MACINTRYE (1999) ‘Philosophy of Religion’, in Alan Richardson and John Bowden (eds.), A New Dictionary of Christian Theology, Kent, SCM Press Ltd.

GRIFFIN, DAVID RAY (1976) God, Power, and Evil, Philadelphia, The Westminster Press. 

LUTHER, MARTIN. (1516)(1968) Commentary On The Epistle To The Romans, Translated by J.Theodore Mueller, Grand Rapids, Zondervan Publishing House.

LUTHER, MARTIN. (1518)(1989) ‘Heidelberg Disputation’, in Timothy F. Lull (ed.), Martin Luther’s Basic Theological Writings, Minneapolis, Fortress Press. 

LUTHER, MARTIN. (1525)(1972) ‘The Bondage of the Will’, in F.W. Strothmann and Frederick W. Locke (eds.), Erasmus-Luther: Discourse on Free Will, New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., INC.

MACKIE, J.L. (1955)(1996) ‘Evil and Omnipotence’, in Mind, in Michael Peterson, William Hasker, Bruce Reichenbach, and David Basinger (eds.), Philosophy of Religion, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

MACKIE, J.L. (1971)(1977)(2002) ‘Evil and Omnipotence’, in The Philosophy of Religion, in Alvin C. Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil, Grand Rapids. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

PLANTINGA, ALVIN C. (1977)(2002) God, Freedom, and Evil, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

PLANTINGA, ALVIN C. (1982) The Nature of Necessity, Oxford, Clarendon Press.

PLANTINGA, ALVIN C. (2000) Warranted Christian Belief, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 

WELTY, GREG (1999) ‘The Problem of Evil’, in Greg Welty PhD, Fort Worth, Texas.Philosophy Department, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, http://www.ccir.ed.ac.uk/~jad/welty/probevil.htm

WRIGHT, R.K.McGREGOR (1996) No Place for Sovereignty, Downers Grove, Illinois, InterVarsity Press.

Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad/To My Friend In Regard To C.S. Lewis

Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad/To My Friend In Regard To C.S. Lewis

Preface

Updated August 29 2023

Photo features 'Bob Ross' 'cheater trees', covered by 'pollution', August 27, 2023, Port Moody, British Columbia 

Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad

A Facebook discussion: May 2016

A Facebook friend and I were at one time discussing C.S. Lewis as a writer. My friend was defending Lewis as a fiction writer, which I can view as reasonable. There was no disagreement on that issue.

My friend was offended that I did not particularly embrace the non-fiction theological and philosophical writings of C.S. Lewis. In particular his writings on the problem of evil and the nature of God, as these are areas of my academic expertise through academic degrees and website work. I am not whatsoever, claiming to be a C.S. Lewis scholar or a scholar in regard to his fictional works. I do agree with Lewis on several theological and philosophical points. 

I am not stating I cannot learn from the writings of C.S. Lewis in regard to theology and philosophy. There are many writers and speakers I can learn from. However, C.S. Lewis is not primarily an authority I would appeal to, which I very much realize is contrary to many evangelical, North American pastors and church attenders.

My friend opined (paraphrased) that appealing to academic sources such as myself in regard to theology and philosophy of religion and differing in any negative way from the theological and philosophical work of C.S.Lewis was fallacious. As in the fallacy, 'Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad', my friend indicated.

My friend also stated that some in the 'New Age' have doctorates and are not authorities. I stated that I was not academically and intellectually defending all of the views of those with doctorates. Far from it, if a person actually regularly reads my articles posted on my sites; I am not a supporter of views primarily, at least, based on the fact a source has a doctorate or not.

Again, the review of the Pirie text: 

(As a different friend told me on the phone one time, 'It is like you have three jobs.')

Pirie and Blackburn

Pirie explains that Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad  is an appeal to false authority. (210).

Here is a key, quote

'...it is a fallacy to suppose that an expert in one field can lend support in another. Unless one has special expertise, he is a false authority' (210).

Blackburn agrees basically with Pirie and my view:

'ad verecundiam appealing to an authority outside its legitimate area'. (24).

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 

Cited

'The ad verecundiam fallacy concerns appeals to authority or expertise. Fundamentally, the fallacy involves accepting as evidence for a proposition the pronouncement of someone who is taken to be an authority but is not really an authority. This can happen when non-experts parade as experts in fields in which they have no special competence—when, for example, celebrities endorse commercial products or social movements. Similarly, when there is controversy, and authorities are divided, it is an error to base one’s view on the authority of just some of them.'  (End citation)

My perspective

C.S. Lewis was a Christian apologist and 'pop' popular theology writer on some issues.

C.S. Lewis was not an academically trained theologian or philosopher.

C.S. Lewis Wikipedia

Cited 

'Clive Staples Lewis, FBA (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer, literary scholar, and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge University (Magdalene College, 1954–1963).'

Lay theologian Wikipedia

Cited 

'A lay theologian is a theologian "who is not ordained, or a theologian who has not been trained as a theologian".[1] Lay theologians often have academic qualifications in other academic disciplines.'

(End citation)

Academic research in theology, philosophy and philosophy of religion, is special expertise. My professional and special expertise and academic training is in theology, philosophy of religion and biblical studies.

More specifically, my professional and special expertise and academic training is in regard to the problem of evil, the nature of God, free will and determinism. I reviewed C.S. Lewis' theological views in regard to problem of evil and the nature of God, within my MPhil thesis.

Therefore, I commit no fallacy by with at least some expertise, opining on the related theological and philosophical work of C.S. Lewis. Pirie further explains that that fallacy introduces material that has no bearing on the matter under discussion. (211). Such as in my case, with friend, attacking my credentials, because even some people in the 'New Age' have doctorates.

As I did research some C.S. Lewis for my MPhil thesis, I do happen to acknowledge that Lewis is a reasonable source within Christian scholarship. But, he is not personally, one of my key sources. My work is not perfect, and I admit I edit my work. I admit I am finite and sinful, but I am not in error on this issue by using a fallacy or the Verecundiam, Argumentum, Ad, fallacy. At the same time, I am not claiming an infinite understanding of the issue, I am not infinite, obviously!

BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

CONWAY DAVID A. AND RONALD MUNSON (1997) The Elements of Reasoning, Wadsworth Publishing Company, New York. 

LANGER, SUSANNE K (1953)(1967) An Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Dover Publications, New York. (Philosophy). 

LEWIS, C.S. (1961)(1983) A Grief Observed, London, Faber and Faber. MPhil 2003

LEWIS, C.S. (1941)(1990) The Screwtape Letters, Uhrichsville, Ohio, Barbour and Company. MPhil 2003

LEWIS, C.S. (1940)(1996) The Problem of Pain, San Francisco, Harper-Collins. MPhil 2003

PIRIE, MADSEN (2006)(2015) How To Win Every Argument, Bloomsbury, London.

STANFORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHILOSOPHY (2020) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 

by Hans Hansen.