Predestined (PhD)

Solva, Pembrokeshire, Wales (trekearth.com)



The new coat of arms of the University of Wales, Trinity Saint David. I am emailing them now again, this time higher up the chain, way higher, asking for my official paperwork. This will be the third email, or emails perhaps, in three weeks I have sent.

A certain relative said (paraphrased), 'Why don't you apply for a job there and state that your doctorate was confirmed by email (which it was)'.

Predestined (PhD)

In my mind, the concept of compatibilism, although the term is not used,[1] is implied in Scripture. The subject of predestination for salvation, for example, is a complex theological discussion and could be a topic for a Biblical Greek thesis.[2] However, within Ephesians 1,[3] ‘predestined’ which is προορίσας[4] within Ephesians 1: 5,[5] and in the context is ‘predestined us to adoption as sons through Jesus Christ’[6] and προορισθέντες[7] at Ephesians 1: 11, as in ‘we have obtained an inheritance, having been predestined according to his purpose’[8] appear to support Reformed compatibilist notions. Strong defines proorizw[9] which is the root word connected to the forms of the word in Ephesians 1, as to limit in advance in figurative terms,[10] and to predetermine, determine before, ordain, and predestinate.[11] Bauer defines the root word as meaning to decide before hand, predestine of God and applies this definition to Ephesians 1: 5 and 11.[12] Minimally, there appears reasonable textual support from this verse[13] that could support a Reformed compatibilistic perspective on how God chooses persons for his ultimate culminated Kingdom.

There are incompatibilist, evangelical counters to the Reformed view.[14] Ephesians scholar Francis Foulkes (1989) explains that predestination is not in opposition to human free will.[15] The gospel of grace was offered to all persons,[16] and those persons that accepted the message were elected.[17] Foulkes insists that the human faith required rests totally on God and not in self.[18] Foulkes then shifts the issue to the idea that election is not simply salvation, but also holiness of life.[19] He defines predestined as ‘marked beforehand.’[20] It is understood as a divine, eternal plan.[21] Foulkes presentation is commendable and reasonable and although his definition is similar to that of Strong[22] and Bauer,[23] he appears to downplay a deterministic aspect of the word.[24] I do not agree, but inevitably, even with the use of linguistic sources there is room for debate and I lean toward a compatibilistic understanding based on Ephesians 1.[25] Browning, an Oxford New Testament scholar,[26] also sides with a view similar to Foulkes noting that God has a plan of salvation for humanity and persons may freely accept or reject this plan on a personal basis.[27] Within Reformed theology, election is based on God’s plan and initiative to save the elect,[28] as opposed to primarily foreknowledge[29] of human acceptance of the gospel message within a Reformed, Calvinistic framework.

Schelling also presents a view on predestination[30] that human beings act today as they have always acted since ‘eternity’ and at the beginning of creation.[31] Persons continue to act wickedly because in eternity human beings took a stand in ‘egotism and selfishness.’[32] Within this view, passion and desire which can at times go wrong, represent freedom in the nature of human beings.[33] All persons are born with a ‘dark principle of evil attached to them.’[34] Persons can be good, even with this darkness through ‘divine transmutation.’[35] This non-traditional perspective would view human beings as predestined to commit evil[36] but allows for God to still work good within persons.[37]

I reason that the Bible when taken in proper context,[38] provides some important insights[39] into the logical and gratuitous problems of evil, and I favour the Reformed perspective strongly without negating the other views, including incompatibilism, in an unfair manner. Although I am a theist, I readily admit that atheists too have some good insights[40] at times, as for example Flew[41] and Mackie[42] make some reasonable criticisms of Plantinga’s work as discussed in Chapter Two.

[1] The term being a modern philosophical one.

[2] This is not a Biblical Studies PhD and I was therefore advised to limit my Biblical work within this thesis, but I seek accuracy in my Biblical interpretations.

[3] A key Chapter for Reformed views on compatibilism.

[4] The Greek New Testament (1993: 654).

[5] The Greek New Testament (1993: 654).

[6] The New American Standard Version Bible (1984: 1322).

[7] The Greek New Testament (1993: 655).

[8] The New American Standard Version Bible (1984: 1322).

[9] Strong (1890)(1986: 81).

[10] Strong (1890)(1986: 81).

[11] Strong (1890)(1986: 81).

[12] Bauer (1979: 709).

[13] I realize many other verses could be examined concerning this subject. I provide Ephesians 1 as a prime Reformed example within a limited space allotted for this topic.

[14] Foulkes (1989: 55).

[15] Foulkes (1989: 55).

[16] Foulkes (1989: 55). Browning (1997: 301).

[17] Foulkes (1989: 55). Browning writes that the New Testament does not state that those that reject this offer are damned to hell. Browning (1997: 301).

[18] Foulkes (1989: 55). Frankly, Foulkes does not explain how this works within his incompatibilistic system.

[19] Foulkes (1989: 55). I can agree that God does work out holiness in his people.

[20] Foulkes (1989: 56).

[21] Foulkes (1989: 56).

[22] Strong (1890)(1986: 81).

[23] Bauer (1979: 709).

[24] Foulkes (1989: 55-56).

[25] I can still consider incompatibilistic notions and other perspectives, when needed.

[26] Browning (1997: i). Browning provides an Anglican perspective.

[27] Browning (1997: 301).

[28] Calvin (1543)(1996: 200).

[29] Thiessen (1956: 344).

[30] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66).

[31] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66). Creation is not passive and is dynamic and in constant activity. Gutmann (1845)(1936: xxiii). This non-passive activity included rebellion within Schelling’s view.

[32] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66).

[33] Gutmann (1845)(1936: xxv).

[34] Gutmann (1845)(1936: xxv).

[35] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66).

[36] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66).

[37] Schelling (1845)(1936: 66).

[38] Franke (2005: 9). Shedd (1874-1890)(1980: 4 Volume 1).

[39] Admittedly they are non-exhaustive. This is a major reason why we have discussions in regard to theodicy as God is not crystal clear concerning the issue in Scripture.

[40] I personally relate to many of the objections raised against an all-powerful, good God in this world filled with evil. I simply reason God has perfect motives and a track record in Christ, whereas an atheist would have unbelief. This does not mean we do not share a mutual hatred of much evil and suffering.

[41] Flew (1955: 150-153).

[42] Mackie (1971) in Plantinga (1977)(2002: 32-33). Mackie (1955)(1996: 250-253).

BAUER, W. (1979) A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Translated by Eric H. Wahlstrom, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.

BROWNING, W.R.F. (1997) Dictionary of the Bible, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

CALVIN, JOHN (1543)(1996) The Bondage and Liberation of the Will, Translated by G.I. Davies, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.

FLEW, ANTONY (1955) ‘Theology and Falsification’, in Antony Flew and A. MacIntrye (eds.), New Essays in Philosophical Theology, London, SCM, in Paul Edwards and Arthur Pap (eds.), A Modern Introduction To Philosophy, New York, The Free Press.

FRANKE, JOHN R. (2005) The Character of Theology, Baker Academic, Grand Rapids.

FOULKES, FRANCIS (1989) Ephesians, Grand Rapids, Inter-Varsity Press.

GUTMANN, JAMES (1845)(1936) ‘Introduction’ in SCHELLING, F.W.J. (1845)(1936) Schelling, Of Human Freedom, Translated by James Gutmann, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago.

MACKIE, J.L. (1955)(1996) ‘Evil and Omnipotence’, in Mind, in Michael Peterson, William Hasker, Bruce Reichenbach, and David Basinger (eds.), Philosophy of Religion, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

MACKIE, J.L. (1971)(1977)(2002) ‘Evil and Omnipotence’, in The Philosophy of Religion, in Alvin C. Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil, Grand Rapids. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

SCHELLING, F.W.J. (1845)(1936) Schelling, Of Human Freedom, Translated by James Gutmann, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago.

SHEDD, WILLIAM G.T. (1874-1890)(1980) Dogmatic Theology, Volume 1, Nashville, Thomas Nelson Publishers.

STRONG, J. (1986) Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Pickering, Ontario, Welch Publishing Company.

THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT (1993) Stuttgart, United Bible Societies.

THIESSEN, H.C. (1956) Introductory Lectures in Systematic Theology, Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.


Pea green sea, Solva, Wales (trekearth.com)

Divinity student? Fundamentalist? Hmm

The University of Wales, Trinity Saint David

1. Dr. Russ Murray

September 3

This morning via the postgraduate department, my internal reviewer confirmed he agrees with the external reviewer that my post-viva PhD revisions are acceptable and that I have passed the PhD research thesis and am now a Doctor.

I will await the proper paperwork by regular mail, but email confirmation shall suffice for now.

This has been a long process for which I started with the University in 2004 and have gone through three advisors.

But it is a valuable degree with two stamps. The second stamp is from Wales, Trinity Saint David, which is a new University which is in existence by a merger with the University of Wales, Lampeter, and Trinity University College. I am currently with the Lampeter campus (distance learning), but actually started with Wales at Trinity University, although I have not physically been to the campus.

The merger has slowed up the processing of my Doctorate, but I am pleased with my result.

Trinity Saint David link



Rankings related to Wales, Lampeter, my campus.

Wales, Lampeter Rankings link

'May 2009

In the most recent Complete University Guide published in association with The Independent newspaper, the Department of Theology & Religious Studies at the University of Wales Lampeter was ranked 13th in the UK.'

'In December 2008, the Research Institute for Theology & Religious Studies was rated 9th in the UK for its research strength by Research Fortnight magazine in its RAE 2008 Analysis Power Rankings.'

'Then in February (2009), The Guardian newspaper placed the Department in first position in the UK for the number of postgraduate distance learning students.'

The first stamp is from The University of Wales in Cardiff. Wales is a series of accredited Universities, including Trinity Saint David and is affiliated with Cardiff University. With 100, 000 students the University of Wales would be one of the largest Universities in the United Kingdom.

My first advisor at Wales stated it was the second largest in the UK.

My thinking is that Wales, Lampeter has a high ranking on its own, and this should be boosted by the merger. So, with the second stamp from Wales, Trinity Saint David I have done well.

With the Wales first stamp it is less specific to my degree but the size of the institution does carry much credibility.

I started at Manchester, but this degree is just as valuable. I could have spent months working on passing a GRE (general knowledge test) and signed with Cambridge, but for Theology and Philosophy of Religion, although Cambridge is more famous than Wales, I doubt my CV would be boosted by a Cambridge degree over Wales. The level of work would be identical and Wales is very well-known in my field.

My preferences were London, Cambridge, Durham, Oxford, Wales, Edinburgh, Sheffield and Manchester and I received two research degrees from Wales, and so with God's help I succeeded.

University of Wales link



Now I can upgrade my Curriculum Vitae properly and start the process of looking for employment as a professor, worldwide. This will be much work.

Thanks for all the support, and comments appreciated if you feel so led.

2. Divinity student? Fundamentalist? Hmm

August 31

As some of you may have realized, as well as continuing my education in theology, philosophy of religion and Biblical studies, I also dabble with psychology. I actually took some psychology courses for my degrees.

Desiring a diverse education, I emailed a secular psychologist and businessman a few months ago. He was friendly, somewhat helpful, quite intelligent, and claimed to be so, having worked in special capacities for governments. Now, I basically admitted his greater knowledge and intelligence in some areas by writing him and asking for his advice, even though overall, his formal education was less than mine.

But, in many ways, so what, academic degrees represent types of intelligence in certain areas only.

Although he had some good advice, two major red flags came up in our dialogue.

Now please realize I have worked within secular Religious Studies academia for over ten years and so I have developed a sensitivity with certain semantics.

One, although I clearly pointed out, listing my degrees, I was working within a secular University within the fields of Theology and Philosophy of Religion, concerning theodicy and the problem of evil, he stated that I was a 'Divinity' student. This as opposed to acknowledging me as a Theologian, and Philosopher or more accurately a Philosopher of Religion. I also provided my links to my theology blogs.

Importantly for context, our discussion was in regard to relationships and perceived intelligence, including social and academic intelligence and associated success.

My education was not viewed by him as having notable social status.

Please note, I am not being egotistical here, I realize although I am not typical I suppose, I am an average man in many ways. Perhaps most ways. This post is not primarily about me, but about worldviews.

Now, I realize semantics can be tricky, but in my mind anyway, a 'Divinity' student can be a brilliant academic, and certainly there are ones I can learn from. But typically it is someone studying to be a pastor, church worker or perhaps missionary, which are generally less academic endeavours. I did attend Canadian Baptist Seminary at Trinity Western University but did not take the M.DIV degree, but did the MTS degree.

For example from Loyola, at the University of Chicago, it describes their M.DIV degree.

Chicago

'The Master of Divinity (M.Div.), is a comprehensive degree designed to meet the educational needs of persons called to professional ministerial leadership. Those who elect to pursue this Master of Divinity degree are making a major commitment to prepare for pastoral ministry, choosing to join in the adventure of discerning their gifts and preparing themselves for a life of religious leadership in an evolving church and society.'

From my academic experience, I reason this is a typical description of a M.DIV.

I am not criticizing the intellectual ability of persons taking this degree, but this type of degree is not generally as academic as the MTS, or more so secular MPhil or PhD research only degrees.

Did perhaps this psychologist, not know the difference? Quite likely to some degree, but the red flag comes from his overall downplaying of Religious Studies.

Therefore:

My reasoning is that he views even the higher degrees in Religious Studies as simply glorified Divinity degrees. In other words, Theology and Philosophy of Religion are intellectually secondary as academic disciplines.

So, I kindly corrected the gentleman and pointed out his mistake via email.

There was no answer...which is typical in that type of situation.

I am reading too much into his view? Perhaps. Well, let us go to point two.

Two, he stated I needed to change the type of people that I wished to associate with in certain ways. He claimed that I should avoid certain relationships with fundamentalist Christians, in content seemingly as if all Bible-believing Christians were stereotypical American fundamentalists. Within the context he wrote, he labelled the fundamentalists as being naive in certain aspects. He did not state I was a fundamentalist.

Now, I can admit, certainly some fundamentalists will be naive in certain ways, as will some non-fundamentalists, but the red flag came up in basically labelling all Bible-believing Christians as stereotypical fundamentalists.

C.T. McIntire states that fundamentalism is a movement that arose after World War One in the United States which attempted to reaffirm orthodox Protestant theology and defend it against liberal theology. McIntire (1996: 433). Since then the movement has diversified as has its meanings. McIntire (1996: 433). Connections are made to non-academics that are leaders, such as the now late Jerry Falwell, Tim La Haye, Hal Lindsey and Pat Robertson. McIntire (1996: 435).

Now, I can admit that I, and certain Christian persons I could have actual or potential relationships with would to certain degrees share some of the views of American fundamentalism.

But, in reality, I and many of the Christian persons I could have actual or potential relationships with, are not American fundamentalists.

With me for example:

I am not American.
I was not educated in American fundamentalist or Christian institutions.
My early Christian education was via moderate liberal Christian Sunday school.
I am an academic educated in Canadian Christian institutions of a moderate conservative nature and secular British Universities that would be moderately liberal.
I am not culturally an American fundamentalist, but by years of study I am Christian, Reformed, and Evangelical, although also not culturally American Reformed or Evangelical.
My degrees and my writing topics concerning theodicy, the problem of evil, the nature of God, non-conformity to certain aspects of cultural Christianity and the need for critical thinking clearly place me outside of American fundamentalism in many ways.
I am a moderate conservative.

Now, was the psychologist aware of much of this? No, not likely.

Therefore:

The assumption appears to be Theology and Philosophy of Religion Studies are largely at least, based in fundamentalism and that these disciplines and all Religious Studies are intellectually secondary as disciplines.

In the same reply that I dealt with the Divinity issue, I dealt with the fundamentalism issue and of course received no reply.

I am misreading his views? That is possible, yes. But in my time in the UK, I realized sitting in some meetings that North American religious studies of any conservative nature were primarily written-off as fundamentalist and evangelical and therefore academically lightweight.

The kind of work supposed 'Divinity' students would do.

I reason the kind and intelligent psychologist was basically reasoning the same thing.

MCINTIRE, C.T. (1996) ‘Fundamentalism’, in Walter A. Elwell (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Books.

End

In this post are ten more of my favourite desktop photos from the last decade plus years.


Grand Canyon, Australia


Anse Couleuvre, France (trekearth.com)


Where is this?


Moezel, Germany (trekearth.com)


Fire Lake, BC (trekearth.com)


The University of Wales, Bangor. Where I earned my MPhil thesis degree. I have never set foot on campus or been in Bangor.


Cha Grande, Brazil (trekearth.com)


Bahia, Honda Bridge, South Florida (trekearth.com)


Maple Ridge, BC (thekingpin68)
My estate is on the right, Mr. Walter T. Franklin's house is down that road heading east.


Maple Ridge, BC (thekingpin68)
From my back window. Sometimes I pray while looking at that crooked Evergreen Tree. I am thinking of me, you, or both of us?;)

E-books and Blogger Next Blog

Trees, Versailles, France (trekearth.com)

E-books

As many of you will realize, with my four academic degrees (my PhD pass is promised to arrive soon in the mail) and two theological blogs, I have spent a lot of time on Christian/religious studies for free.

At times it was 30+ hours on thesis and 20-30 hours on blogging, weekly.

But in reality this is both ministry and business.

I will soon look for work as a professor with my upgraded Curriculum Vitae.

I have started an e-book (or ebook) business.

My first e-book is done and now I am just finalizing the new website, payment plans and related.

I will market the e-books on thekingpin68 and satire and theology as well.

The first e-book is concerning the philosophical, political, aspects of writing a successful PhD thesis, especially in a semi-hostile department and via distance learning. It will present a non-politically correct way of looking at the topic.

It will not be like materials written by employees of Universities/Colleges where one is instructed how to write a thesis. Although, I do provide some technical advice.

My second e-book will probably concern the problem of evil.

Big surprise to my readers...

Blogger Next Blog

I have stated on this blog previously:

'Theology is not to be done at the expense of the Scripture, but within a correct study of that Scripture. Shedd reasons that ‘methods of investigation are continually undergoing correction and modification’ and this can lead to better organization of the subject. Shedd (1874-1890)(1980: 4 Volume 1). Theology is always considered in the light of cultural and historical setting of the day, the implication being that a culture will influence theology and therefore theology needs to be scrutinized with this concept always in mind. This however, should never alter essential Biblical doctrines found by studying Scripture in context.'

'Erickson explains that although Scripture presents objective truth, the application of Scripture may be different for each person. Even if one reasons that objective truth exists, each person subjectively with his/her own mindset deals with data and knowledge in an individualistic way. There needs to be solid church teachings that adequately explain Biblical doctrines within their original context, staying true to Biblical theology, and yet teaching should be flexible enough to provide explanations that vary at times in order to be relatable to differing modern groups and individuals.'

I use Blogger Next Blog and web searches to help find Christian bloggers.

I reason:

Christian theological blogging can include various types of bloggers which can be found via web seaching. As one can see from my links lists on thekingpin68 and satire and theology, I link with a variety of people, mostly Christians, from various countries and of various ages, both male and female.

As a result various theological perspectives are provided when persons comment.

To me, this constitutes a cultural development of theology.

ERICKSON, MILLARD (1994) Christian Theology, Grand Rapids, Baker Book House.

SHEDD, WILLIAM G.T. (1874-1890)(1980) Dogmatic Theology, Volumes 1 and 2, Nashville, Thomas Nelson Publishers.

In this post I will feature ten of my favourite desktop photos I have collected.


I picked this up off of StumbleUpon. I have never seen or touched in person light blue water like that.


South Wales, United Kingdom (trekearth.com)

I would love that as my backyard.


Campo Del Moro, Madrid, Spain (trekearth.com)

This seems like such a cool place to take in a lecture, or teach one. Either in the building or even better out on the grass on a sunny day.


Conwy Gardens, Wales, 2001 (thekingpin68)


Conway overview, Wales 2001 (thekingpin68)

I am in no way a profession photographer but I like a few of my photos. They are not the best technically in my collection, but a few of mine have the scenes I want.




Grand Canyon, Australia

Princeton University

Seems like a very scenic place.


Maple Ridge, BC (thekingpin68)

A photo I took here at my complex. I have no plans at staying here long term, but it is a reminder that despite all my troubles from situations and people there is beauty where I am at.

Consciousness and soul/spirit (PhD edit)

Alfonso XII monument, Madrid (photo from trekearth.com)

Please note, the post is actually fairly short if one just reads the main body and not the footnotes.

As part of my post-viva PhD revisions I was required to do some psychological and scientific research on consciousness, that was to work in concert with my already theological and philosophical approach. I presented a bit of this information back on May 13, 2009 with the article 'Consciousness, universalism, and Dos Equis'.

This new post will provide more material on consciousness.

How is this relevant to theology, philosophy of religion and Biblical Studies and more particular in my case, theodicy and the problem of evil? Well, I must admit I wondered why I was digging through secular psychology and science journals for my PhD revisions, but actually the findings do not, in my opinion, work against the Biblical idea of a human immaterial soul/spirit.

Sir John Houghton (1995) defines consciousness as ‘a quality possessed by human beings’ and the extent that it may be possessed by higher animals is the subject of debate.[1] Although the human brain is sometimes compared to a computer,[2] the human brain seems different as it thinks, feels, and demonstrates the property of self-awareness and consciousness.[3] Rocco J. Gennaro (2006) of Indiana State University documents grammatically that the main term under review, consciousness is derived from the Latin con (with)[4] and scire (know).[5]

Michael Winkelman (2004) of the American Anthropological Association writes that common understanding of a model of consciousness includes attention-awareness, phenomenal experiences, self-referencing, learning and the use of information, interpreting meanings, having goals, and systems of social reference.[6] It is suggested that consciousness manifests itself through the physical properties of the brain.[7] John Perry (1998) within ‘Circumstantial Attitudes and Benevolent Cognition’ suggests desires, beliefs and other cognitive aspects of persons are associated with mental states.[8] These mental states[9] relate by implication to human consciousness. There are strands of thought that desires and related functions may be found within human consciousness.[10]

David M. Rosenthal (2007) in ‘Philosophy, and the Study of Consciousness’ states that a person or creature is conscious when it can be awake and respond to ‘sensory stimulation.’[11] Being conscious also relates to a creature that senses and perceives about a thing or has a thought about that thing being present.[12] It is also defined as the state of being aware in contrast to being unaware.[13] Wade Novin (2004) in his journal article on quantum physics and consciousness explains consciousness is a ‘unique problem for the sciences’.[14] Cognitive science has recently made advances in understanding the structures and process of sensory input leading to bodily functions, but still little is known about consciousness.[15] It is noted that presently it is difficult to explain the need for consciousness within physical organisms within a physical, natural world.[16] Consciousness is considered as part of natural phenomenon because it is reasoned to exist, but not because any scientific theory can predict or explain its emergence.[17]

Peter Carruthers (2001)(2007) documents that modern higher-order theories[18] concerning consciousness attempts to reason out the distinctive properties of consciousness in regard to higher-order representation of sorts as in the ‘subjective dimensions’ of feelings.[19] Within the International Journal of Philosophy, Isabel Gois (2001) suggests that in written work consciousness is often viewed as a mystery.[20] She seeks to make consciousness less mysterious through the use of scientific inquiry.[21] Some philosophers and many scientists are skeptical concerning human ability to explain how the brain works in regard to the shape of events, thoughts and feelings.[22] There is a common view that no matter how detailed and complete a scientific theory of consciousness may be it will not be able to explain why the human ‘conscious experiences alone have an apparent quality to their occurrences’ while unconscious processes do not.[23]

Gois thinks this is a mistaken perspective[24] and instead reasons that science should ‘either provide physical evidence for the truth of those introspective impressions, or bow to the conclusion that it can never know our minds as well as they know themselves’.[25] She suggests that most reason that the second option is the more likely one, although she disagrees and reasons science can one day empirically understand consciousness.[26] Sir John Houghton writes that we should not expect to find extra material as part of the brain called ‘consciousness or self-awareness’ which ‘pervades the brain without being a part of it,[27] and I accept this is as a sound statement.

There is no clear understanding despite the fact consciousness, desires and related are studied within philosophy, religion, psychology and psychiatry.[28] The term and concept of consciousness has not been developed with enough clarity from scientists and others with related expertise.[29] It can be reasoned that possibly consciousness is the starting point where the human being has self-awareness and an understanding that they are an individual apart from any other entity.[30] Consciousness is a difficult subject,[31] but psychologist and philosopher William James (1904) states that if the idea of consciousness in understanding human thought is eliminated there is not an explanation for brain function.[32] If human consciousness is rejected because it is not completely understood,[33] then other ideas need to be invented which probably are not as intellectually satisfying.

[1] Houghton (1995: 219).

[2] Houghton (1995: 92).

[3] Houghton (1995: 92).

[4] Gennaro (2006: 1).

[5] Gennaro (2006: 1).

[6] Winkelman (2004: 1).

[7] Winkelman (2004: 1).

[8] Perry (1998: 1).

[9] Perry (1998: 1).

[10] Biologist Alfred Gierer from Tubingen suggests that consciousness appears as ‘a system’s feature of our brain with neural processes strictly following the laws of physics’. Gierer (2003: 1). Gierer explains that there is not however, a general and exhaustive theory of human consciousness. Gierer (2003: 1). E. Ordunez, I. Badillo, and E Peon state the basic conjecture is that matter, energy and related information within the universe activates brain function and the nervous system and the human experiences of ‘memory, logic, sentiments, awareness, perception, cognition’, and other processes. Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 1).

[11] Rosenthal (2007: 1).

[12] Rosenthal (2007: 1). This would include an imagination of something possible.

[13] Rosenthal (2007: 1).

[14] Novin (2004: 1).

[15] Novin (2004: 1-2).

[16] Novin (2004: 2).

[17] Novin (2004: 2). Neil C. Manson writes that there is unlikely to be a simple, direct way to connect mental discourse to ultimate conclusions concerning the nature of consciousness. Manson (2002: 1).

[18] Carruthers (2001)(2007: 1). Higher-order thought will allow one to be conscious of his/her own state. Rosenthal (2007: 9-11). See also Ned Block of New York University. Block (2008: 1-2) and Gennaro (2006: 1-2).

[19] Carruthers (2001)(2007: 1).

[20] Gois (2001: 3). However, Gierer notes that most scientists reason mental states are clearly linked to the empirical physical states of the human brain. Gierer (2003: 6).

[21] Gois (2001: 3-4).

[22] Gois (2001: 4). Many philosophers and scientists are sceptical that human consciousness can be properly explained. Houghton admits it is difficult for many observers to accept that consciousness can be defined in a meaningful way or to describe it in terms of other things. Houghton (1995: 92-93).

[23] Gois (2001: 4).

[24] Gois (2001: 4).

[25] Gois (2001: 4). Gierer reasons one of the difficulties with the problem of understanding human consciousness and understanding humanity is the question of human free will. Gierer (2003: 13). Consciousness allows a person to have knowledge and understanding of self and environment and, therefore to have a perception of both good and evil. Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2).

[26] Gois (2001: 4). Marco Biagini, an Italian scientist with a PhD in Solid State Physics that operates the Center of Scientific Divulgation of Consciousness comments consciousness is ‘directly observable phenomena.’ Biagini (2009: 1-4). He takes a more optimistic approach to the idea of coming to scientific conclusions concerning consciousness. Houghton admits that consciousness will require new scientific theories and insights. Houghton (1995: 210).

[27] Houghton (1995: 70).

[28] Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2).

[29] Ordunez, Badillo, and Peon (2008: 2). Houghton (1995: 210).

[30] Descartes in Lormand (1648)(1996: Volume 3: 335). Hume (1739-1740)(1973: 185). Gierer (2003: 9).

[31] Gierer (2003: 9). Gois (2001: 4).

[32] James (1904: 477-491).

[33] James (1904: 477-491).

BIAGINI, MARCO (2009) ‘Mind and brain: A scientific discussion leading to the existence of the soul’, CSDC, Italy, Center of Scientific Divulgation about Consciousness.

BLACKBURN, SIMON (1996) Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

BLOCK, NED (2008) ‘Comparing the Major Theories of Consciousness’, in The Cognitive Neurosciences IV, V.M. Gazzaniga (ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.

CARRUTHERS, PETER (2001)(2007) ‘Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness’, in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Palo Alto, California, Stanford University Press.

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